A REASSESMENT OF THE EXCAVATIONS AT TALL SAFUT
This dissertation will essentially be an archaeological site report, covering the
excavations carried out at the site of Tall Safut in Jordan. It will be an analysis of the
pottery in an effort to determine the stratigraphy of the site through the Iron IIC/Persian
Period.
Background Statement
The site of Tall Safut is located 12 km. north of Amman in Jordan. It was
excavated by Donald Wimmer over the course of 10 seasons between 1982 and 2001
(Wimmer 1985; 1987a; 1987b; 1989; 1991; 1992; 1994; and 1997). Wimmer was
Professor of Religious Studies at Seton Hall University, a Catholic school in New Jersey,
and was studying at the American Center for Oriental Research in Amman when he was
asked to lead a salvage excavation at Safut under the auspices of the Department of
Antiquities of Jordan. There was some urgency as the main north-south highway
between Amman and Jerash was scheduled to be expanded through the heart of the tell.1
In the first season of 1982, Wimmer excavated in Areas A, B, C, D, and E.
Throughout the course of 10 seasons Areas A-L (omitting I) were excavated (see
1
Wimmer’s only archaeological experience was as a volunteer at Tell Heshbon in 1973 and 1976
(Boraas and Horn 1969; 1973; 1975; Boraas and Geraty 1976; 1978). He had decided to dig at Hesban
because as a doctoral student of biblical studies at Notre Dame University his advisor was John L.
McKenzie, friend and colleague of the Director of the Tell Heshbon excavations, Siegfried Horn of
Andrews University.
1
Appendix for site report and site map). The main periods represented at the site are the
Middle Bronze Age (largely in Area D), the Late Bronze Age II, Iron Age I, Iron Age
IIB, Iron Age IIC/Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman/Byzantine. Significant amounts of
pottery and artifacts were found at the site, as well as large architectural structures,
making Safut one of the most important Bronze and Iron Age sites in Jordan (See Table I,
The Stratigraphy of Safut).
The Middle and Late Bronze Ages were at one time thought to be periods of
abatement in Transjordan (Glueck 1970); however, with further excavations and modern
pottery analysis, more about these periods is known (Sauer 1986 and McGovern 1992).
Due to a supposed Middle Bronze glacis that was revealed by the bulldozers, Safut
emerged on the archaeological scene in 1953 when the Amman-Jerash highway was first
constructed (Zayadine 1973: 18-19). This glacis was further revealed by the expansion of
the highway in 1960 (Ma'ayeh 1960a: 114-116; Ma'ayeh 1960b: 226). Wimmer
determined, based on excavation of Area D, that
There is no question that the bedrock was cut in antiquity as foundation for the
crowning wall, and that the composition of the inclined place agreed with the earlier
description, except that no certain signs of plaster appeared. It could have weathered
away, or have been removed by the 1950s construction. . . . It should be noted that the
crowning wall, as it was called, is curved, and that the segment on the west has its
counterpart on the east as is evident in a pre-excavation slide. Excavation produces
only MB/LB Bronze Age pottery in the layers immediately above the glacis itself
which proved to be sterile (Wimmer 1987a: 279).
In other words, it cannot be determined with certainty whether the glacis is artificial or
manmade. Wimmer later reported that what was thought to be a glacis is nothing more
than a natural geological formation (Wimmer 1992: 896). So, in order to understand the
Middle Bronze Age occupation at Safut, the pottery from Area D will be examined. It
will be virtually impossible to determine whether the observed glacis is artificial or
2
naturally occurring, but even if there was no glacis this does not preclude a Middle
Bronze settlement.
There are significant remains found in Area B dating to the Late Bronze Age.
Based on an initial assessment of the pottery from this area there appears to be a
continuation of settlement from the Late Bronze IIB through the Iron Age I. This Late
Bronze/Iron I transition period is very important for understanding the settlement process
that leads to the Iron Age II kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Israel/Judah (Herr
1992; LaBianca and Younker 1994; Petter 2005; Routledge 2004). So, a detailed
examination of the stratigraphy and corresponding pottery, objects, and architectural
remains will be vitally important to determine more definitively the nature of the
transition at Safut and to see how this transitional period relates to those found at sites
such as Tall al-Umayri (Herr 1989; 1991; 1997; 2000; 2002).
Finally, the main period of occupation at Safut is the Iron II. The pottery needs to
be examined in order to understand the occupational phases of the tell as a whole, and the
architecture and artifacts need to be examined in order to delineate the relationship Safut
has with the Baq’ah Valley and the capital city of the Ammonites, Rabbath-Ammon.
Problem Statement
Other than the preliminary reports and encyclopedia articles published by
Wimmer, no detailed analysis of the remains and no final reports have been published
since the conclusion of excavations in 2001. The site has received brief mention in other
articles and books dealing with archaeology because of its remains dating to the Middle
Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, and Iron Ages. Safut has significant remains from these
3
time periods and their detailed analysis is important for understanding the ancient history
of Jordan.
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this dissertation is to prepare a stratigraphic report of the material
from the Middle Bronze Age through the Iron IIC/Persian Period excavated at Tall Safut,
Jordan from 1982-2001.
Scope and Delimitations
Considering the amount of time that has passed since the excavations were
completed and the lack of detailed material that has been published, the main problem
that will be faced while writing this dissertation is accurately reconstructing each level of
deposition based on the pottery (and pottery drawings) available and the notebooks
recorded during each season of excavation. The secondary problem is the disorganized
and scattered nature of the material. The majority of the pottery findings and artifacts are
located in Jordan. However they are spread between the Salt Archaeological Museum,
the Amman Citadel Museum, and the DAJ storage warehouse facilities. The materials
now located at Andrews University were originally stored at Seton Hall University, and
then upon the retirement of Donald Wimmer were moved to his house. During May 2008
I spent a week at Professor Wimmer’s house retrieving all pertinent materials and hauled
them back to Andrews University. There are also bones and some small finds from the
site in an unknown location in Canada, as well as some figurines and seals in the
possession of Othmar Keel, Professor Emeritus at the University of Freiburg.
4
Due to the fact that the bulk of pottery and artifacts have been kept in Jordan and
are not immediately available for study, the report will mainly focus on pottery sherds
that are now located in the United States at Andrews University. However, also at
Andrews University are pottery drawings of some of the pottery that remains in Jordan,
and these drawings will be an important supplement where sherds are lacking. Using
both sherds and drawings it will be possible to develop a stratigraphic report for all 10
seasons and all areas of excavation pertinent to this report. The report will only look at
levels dating to the Persian Period and earlier. There is scant material on the site from
any later periods and the only excavated architectural remains dating later than the
Persian Period were located on a hill across the wadi from the site (Area H).
Methodology Statement
This dissertation will take the form of an archaeological site report. It will focus
on the stratigraphy of the areas excavated and not on small finds or other remains. The
stratigraphy is best understood by reading through the excavation notebooks and dating
pottery from each level represented. There are several ways to write a site report. Some
are written for every season excavated, others cover all layers in a certain area or field,
and yet others are divided by archaeological periods excavated. Since I have the benefit
of working through the material after it has all been excavated, the third approach will be
used. This approach will be most efficient and will also be the most “user-friendly,”
allowing the reader to look in one chapter for material from a certain time period instead
of looking through multiple chapters and scattered entries. All of these reports use what
is typically called in archaeology the “comparative” approach. The pottery excavated
from the site will be compared with that from other sites with known chronologies. After
5
a date can be assigned to the sherds, the loci they were found in can all be assigned to a
particular phase, and from these phases the overall stratigraphy of the site can be
determined (Dever 1978; Herr and Christopherson 1998).
The proposed content and sequence of chapters is given in a tentative table of
contents attached to this proposal. The chapters concerned with remains from the
excavations will evolve as the material is more closely examined.
6
TENTATIVE TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Chapter:
I.
II.
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Purpose
Methodology
The History of the Tell Safut Project (Background)
Scope and Delimitations
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SAFUT
Name and Biblical References
Geography and Routes
Geology and Resources
History of Exploration
III.
MIDDLE BRONZE AGE REMAINS
IV.
LATE BRONZE AGE REMAINS
V.
IRON AGE I REMAINS
VI.
IRON AGE II REMAINS
VII.
IRON AGE IIC/ PERSIAN REMAINS
VIII.
STRATIGRAPHIC AND HISTORICAL CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCE LIST
7
APPENDIX: SITE REPORT AND MAP
Name/Biblical References:
-The name is taken from the small village that borders the site on the west.
-The site is likely biblical Nobah (Nabai in the LXX) mentioned in Judges 8:11,
with el Gubeihat being Jogbehah, places that Gideon passes by while on the “tentdwellers road.”
-Safut can be traced to shopet (judge/ judgement) by way of Aramaic
transmission. It is a Canaanite name, whose meaning alluded to its domineering
position overlooking the Baq’ah valley. It cannot, however, be totally excluded
that Sâfût is derived from a Canaanite personal name Shaphat (e.g., Num. 13:5,
from the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori) (Knauf 1991).
Geography/Routes:
-The tell is located on the northern edge of the Amman-Jerash highway 1.5km
from the Suweileh intersection, and 12km north of downtown Amman.
-The area of the tell is 17,728 sq m (17.8 dunams or 4.5 acres) and is bounded by
the highway on the south, two wadis on the east and northeast, a small field on the
southwest, and the modern village of Safut on the southwest.
-The tell has a flat top measuring 18 by 70 m (Glueck 1939: 191) before the
modern highway was built.
-The site overlooks the Baq’ah Valley (Beq’ah) from the south, which is 5 km
wide and 10 km long running northeast. Tell Safut is 928.32 m above sea level,
the valley is 300 m below, and the Suweilah hills are 200 m higher.
-The site guarded one of the principle trade routes leading from the interior of
Gilead (Jabbok River in the Bible/ modern Wadi Zerqa) through the Baq’ah
valley to Rabbath-Ammon. The “tent-dwellers road” of Judge 8:11 linked that
area to the Kings Highway.
Geology/Resources:
-There are four springs issuing from the tell at the far northern part near the valley
floor. There is a considerable buildup of sherd-imbedded layers in this area.
There are small wall segments located near them that could have been part of a
control system or connected with the lower portions of the approach to the city
(Wimmer 1984: 408). The springs emanate from the Wadi Suweileh that flows
down from the hills above the site to the south and join with it on the eastern side
of the tell to form the Wadi Safut.
-Geologically the area belongs to the Kurnub Group: this group is exposed in the
western parts of Amman-Zarqa Basin at Baq'ah Valley. It mainly consists of
white, gray and multicolored sandstone (weakly cemented fine-medium and
coarse grained) with red silts, shales and dolomite streaks. The top of this group is
8
known as the Subeihi Formation, which mainly consists of red-brown varicolored
sandstone with a large portion of marl, clay and siltstone. On the other hand, the
lower part of this group is known as Aarda Formation which consists of yellowwhite sandstone with shale partings and dolomite streaks (Al Mahamid 2005: 74).
-The thickness of Kurnub Group has been encountered between 200-300 meters
(USAID and WAJ 1989). The formation dates to the Lower Cretaceous Period
(100-70 MYA).
Archaeology/ History:
-The site was surveyed by De Vaux and Glueck primarily (see Glueck 1937, 1939
and De Vaux 1938) and when the Amman-Jerash road was expanded a cut
exposed what was thought to be a MB glacis (Ma’ayeh 1960a, b).
-Don Wimmer excavated the site beginning in 1982 and subsequent seasons of
1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1995, 1997-1999, and 2001. He dug in Areas A-L
(omitting I).
-Excavations began at the site in 1982 and areas A1-4 (including A1 extension),
B1-3, C1-2, D1-2, and E (one square) were excavated and notebooks written for
each. In 1983 excavations continued in A1 and A4, and C1, while new squares 46 were opened in area B. During the 1985 season in area B squares 7-8 were
opened and in area C squares 1-3 were excavated. In 1987 excavations continued
in A1 and A5 was opened, C4-7 were excavated, area F (one square) was
excavated, as was G1-2. In 1989 B4-8, C1-7, G4-6, and H1-2 (offsite Byzantine
remains) were excavated. After a gap of 6 years excavations continued in 1995 in
area C2-7, square B9, and area J1-12 was opened. In 1997 B8, 10-11 were
excavated and areas L1-6 and K1-5 were opened. In 1998 excavations were only
carried out in L1-6 and L10-15. In 1999 only three squares were excavated L1,
L3, and L10. The last season of excavation was 2001 and again only three
squares were excavated B4, C3, and C7.
- Area A is all Iron Age II and was the initial salvage area where the highway was
to be expanded. Area B is made up of eleven 5m x 5m squares directly north of
area A. Area C is west of B and is made up of three 5m x 10m square and four
5m x 5m squares. Area D is two 5m x 5m squares to the south and slightly west
of C and was excavated in order to better examine the glacis. In these areas A-C
remains were found spanning the Middle Bronze Age all the way through the
Hellenistic Period. Area E is located 100 m to the east of the tell and was found
to consist of some mortars cut into the bedrock, dating to the Late Byzantine
period (Wimmer 1985: 409). Area F is the Iron Age IIC northern perimeter
casemate defense wall and consists of one square. Area G is an Iron IIC tomb
fragment partially bulldozed in the Wadi Safut (Wimmer 1989: 512). Area H is
made up of two squares on a hill across the wadi to the east of the tell. A house
from the Byzantine period was the only architecture found. Area J has thirteen
squares on the southeast slope of the tell just east of Area B, where the surface
was excavated to expose architecture in order to stop modern development
(Wimmer 1997: 449). Area K is located between areas F and L along the
northeastern perimeter of the tell. The last area, L, is made up of 12 squares
where the excavations revealed remains largely dating to the Iron Age II.
9
-Material culture remains clearly correlate with other Ammonite sites: the Amman
citadel, Tell el-‘Umeiri, Tell Jawa, and Umm ad-Dananir (Wimmer 1997: 449).
-Middle Bronze Age: the glacis has been the main focus of any writings on the
site prior to excavations by Wimmer. One of his first goals was to determine the
age of the glacis.
-After more bulldozing was done no cross section of the glacis appeared
and so brought into question its existence. Although at the very least there
appears to have been added fortifications in this area.
-Wimmer later reports that what was thought to be a glacis is nothing
more than a natural geological formation (Wimmer 1992: 896).
-There is no pure MB stratigraphy; the pottery was always mixed with LB.
-Late Bronze Age: Most LB remains were found in area B on the southeastern
part of the acropolis.
-In square A4, which tied area A to B a probe 1.25m deep revealed LB II
layers built on virgin soil and associated with a wall of 0.75m long stones.
-There is a perimeter defense wall around the acropolis running E-W for
the length of area B (squares 1-3), and LB pottery is associated with its
lowest levels. In square B2 a 1.25 m probe was dug to bedrock and the LB
wall with narrow foundation trench went all the way down.
-Inside of the wall in square B5 a chalice, 600 cubic centimeters of charred
two-row barley, and a bronze deity figurine with gold foil was found
under a destruction layer of tumbled mud brick. This was likely a shrine
and it along with the perimeter wall continued in use into the Iron Age I
(Wimmer 1997: 449 contra Wimmer 1987b).
-The perimeter defense wall continued into area J (Wimmer 1997).
-Iron Age I: two squares (B4 and B6) showed a sequence from LBII through
Iron I with no destruction level. In B6 several large collared-rim storage jars were
found standing in a curved mud brick installation, in which the mud brick was
baked in situ (Wimmer 1989: 514).
-Iron Age II: The site was its largest during this period and a more extensive
defense system was built. It was likely used as an administrative and trade center
during the periods of Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony. The major Iron II
perimeter wall rested on a pure Iron IIB destruction level. This is based on a deep
pit (0.9m wide x 2m long x 2.25m deep) faced with stone and containing burnt
material dating to Iron IIB (9th-8th century BCE) (Wimmer 1987b: 162).
-This casemate wall (2.2 m thick) was reinforced by another wall with dirt
core (or some type of small glacis, Wimmer calls it both). The room
(room A/ square A1) inside fully excavated to its floor showed a
destruction level with smashed cookpots and figurine heads. The walls of
the room were plastered and in a crack a dipper juglet was found: it has a
rounded base, an elongated figure, and a loop handle (Wimmer 1987a:
281). This type of juglet exactly parallels one from a late Iron Age
Megabelein tomb (Dornemann 1983: 54, 231). A number of vessels were
found Ammonite in type and dating to the Iron Age IIC (Wimmer 1987b:
166-170).
10
-In squares C1-C2 there are six phases of a large building (with
store/workrooms made of less impressive architecture in C3) and the walls
in B7-B8 can’t be interpreted (Wimmer 1987b: 164, 166, 171-172). Five
of these phases belong to the Iron IIC/Persian Period. There are three
living surfaces separated by two fills or collapses.
-Phase 2 is the latest Iron IIC phase and has consistent living
surfaces. A restorable jar, crosswall, and stone tools were found.
Architecture consists of small, closed units of 2-3m sq built of
single rows of stone.
-Phase 3 consists of debris and collapses, not burned. This is where
a Babylonian seal impression was found depicting a priest
worshipping the god Marduk (square C2).
-Phase 4 stone pavements or floors are found in C1 and C3 and
earth living surfaces (some partially paved) in B7 and B8. There
are more substantial two-row walls enclosing areas of 10-15m sq.
A military standard and dagger blade were found in this level
(square B7).
-Phase 5 is a destruction level, with ashy layer. Stone tools, loom
weights, and a bronze bowl were found.
-Phase 6 has a series of surfaces made of hard packed mud brick.
An iron bar was found here (square C3). There are stone floors in
B7 and a storage bin. The architecture is similar to phase 4.
Wimmer attributes Room A in area A to this phase.
-In area F the casemate wall was again found and one cross wall was
exposed in addition to a 1m sq tower that was integrated into the inner side
of the outer wall; a small opening at the base provided access to the tower
from inside the wall (Wimmer 1994: 541).
-The Iron IIC finds include an iron military standard measuring 1 cm in
thickness and 24 cm in diameter. It was held by three rivets to a 17 cm
long hollow shaft. An iron bar for dismantling walls was also found (see 1
Chronicles 20:3, 2 Samuel 12:31ff).
-In the next layer cooking pots and Assyrian bottles were found. During
the last phase of Iron Age occupation a Late Babylonian seal impression
was found depicting a worshipper before an altar.
-The pottery of the Iron IIC “manifest influence in local imitations of neoAssyrian palace ware, along with characteristically Ammonite painted
ware and the thoroughly black, often burnished ware that continued from
Iron IIC into the Persian Period (Wimmer 1985: 410).”
-Later Periods:
-phase 1 of area C has two Ottoman burials (although the text doesn’t
mention the type) as well as Byzantine sherds and some architectural
features on the summit.
-Late Roman and Byzantine ware were found together in area E and H,
which is on a hill east of the tell where the settlement moved during this
time.
11
-Unexcavated areas: inset/offset walls (at 905 m) with a major bench encircling
the north and western parts of the tell, which connects with another part that
appears to be reached from the valley floor, perhaps indicating a gateway.
Figure 1. Site Map of Tall Safut, adopted from topographic map produced by Robert
Suder after the 1985 season (location of Area K not known).
12
Table 1. The Stratigraphy of Safut
Time Period
Wimmer
Stratigraphy
Modern/Ottoman Period
Late Roman/Byzantine Period
Chesnut Phasing
Phase 1 (burials)
Stratum I
Phase 2 (architectural
features of tell)
Early/Middle Roman Period
Hellenistic Period
Late Iron IIC/ Persian
Stratum IIa
Phase 3 (occupational level)
Iron IIC
Stratum IIb
Phase 4 (post-occupation)
Phase 5 (occupational level)
Early Iron IIC
Stratum IIc
Phase 6 (destruction level)
Phase 7 (occupational level)
Iron IIB
Phase 8 (?)
Iron IIA
Iron I
Stratum IIIa
Phase 9 (transition period ?
and occupational level)
Late Bronze IIA/B
Stratum IIIb
Phase 10 (occupational level)
Late Bronze I
Middle Bronze Age
Phase 11 (?)
13
Bibliography
1978
Abel, F. M.
1938
Sheet 1: Amman. in Archaeological Map of Jordan, 1:250,000.
Géographie de la Palestine II. Paris: J. Gabalda et Cie.
Al Mahamid, J.
2005 Integration of Water Resources of the Upper Aquifer in Amman-Zarqa Basin.
Based on Mathematical Modeling and GIS, Jordan. Freiberg Online Geology 12:
7-223.
Avigad, N., and Sass, B.
1997 Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
Bennett, C. M., and Bienkowski, P.
1995 Excavations at Tawilan in Southern Jordan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bienkowski, P.
1991 Treasure From an Ancient Land: The Art of Jordan. Gloucestershire, UK: Alan
Sutton Publishing.
2002 Busayra Excavations by Crystal-M. Bennett, 1971-1980. Oxford: Published for
the Council for British Research in the Levant by Oxford University Press.
Boraas, R. S., and Geraty, L. T.
1976 Heshbon 1974: The Fourth Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.
Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
1978 Heshbon 1976: The Fifth Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.
Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Boraas, R. S., and Horn, S. H.
1969 Heshbon 1968: The First Campaign at Tell Hesban. Berrien Springs, MI:
Andrews University Press.
1973 Heshbon 1971: The Second Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.
Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
1975 Heshbon 1973: The Third Campaign at Tell Hesban: A Preliminary Report.
Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
14
Bordreuil, P., and Lemaire, A.
1976 Nouveaux Sceaux Hebreux, Arameens, et Ammonites. Semitica 26: 45-63.
Brown, R. M.
1991 Ceramics from the Kerak Plateau. Atlanta: Scholars Press.
Burrows, M.
1931 News From the School of Jerusalem. Bulletin for the American Schools of
Oriental Research 44: 10-12.
Chambon, D. R.
1989 Field B: The Western Defense System. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University
Press.
Clark, D. R.
2000
Field B: The Western Defensive System. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University
Press.
Dajani, R. W.
1966a Jebel Nuzha Tomb at Amman. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities
Jordan 11: 48-52.
1966b Four Iron Age Tombs from Irbid. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities
Jordan 11: 88-101.
1970 A Late Bronze Age Tomb Excavated at Sahab, 1968. Annual of the Department of
the Antiquities Jordan 15: 29-34.
Daviau, P. M. M., and Dion, P.E.
2002 Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan: The Iron Age Town. Leiden: Brill.
De Vaux, R.
1938
1978
Dever, W.
1978
Chronique: Exploration de la Region de Salt. Revue Biblique 47: 398-425.
The Early History of Israel. London: Darton, Longman, & Todd.
A Manual of Field Excavation: Handbook for Field Archaeologists. Cincinnati:
Hebrew Union College.
Dornemann, R. H.
1983 The Archaeology of the Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Milwaukee:
Milwaukee Public Museum.
Fischer, P. M.
1991 Tell Abu al-Kharaz: The Swedish Jordan Expedition 1989: First Season
Preliminary Report from Trial Soundings. Annual of the Department of the
Antiquities Jordan 35: 67-104.
15
2006
2008
Tell Abu Al-Kharaz in the Jordan Valley. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Tell Abu al-Kharaz in the Jordan Valley. Volume 1: The Early Bronze Age.
Vienna: Verlag der Osterreischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Fischer, P. M., and Bourke, S.
2006 The Chronology of the Jordan Valley during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages:
Pella, Tell Abu Al-Kharaz, and Tell Deir 'Alla. Vienna: Verlag der
Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Franken, H. J.
1992 Excavations at Tell Deir 'Alla: The Late Bronze Age Sanctuary. Leiden: Brill.
Franken, H. J., and Kalsbeek, J.
1969 Excavations at Tell Deir 'Alla. Leiden: Brill.
Ghanimeh, K. A.
1984 Abu Nseir Excavations. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan 28:
305-310, 484-485, 487-489.
Glueck, N.
1934
1937
1939
1970
Explorations in Eastern Palestine I. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental
Research 14: 1-113.
Explorations in the Land of Ammon. Bulletin for the American Schools of
Oriental Research 68: 13-21.
Explorations in Eastern Palestine, III. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental
Research 28-29: 191-192, 197.
The Other Side of the Jordan. Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental
Research.
Harding, G. L.
1948 An Iron-Age Tomb at Sahab. Quarterly for the Department of Antiquities of
Palestine 13: 92-102.
Harding, G. L., and Isserlin, B. S. J.
1953a A Middle Bronze Age Tomb at Amman. Palestine Exploration Fund Annual 6:
14-26.
1953b An Early Iron Age Tomb at Madeba. Palestine Exploration Fund Annual 6: 2741.
Hendrix, R. E.; Drey, P. R.; and Storfjell, J. B.
1997 Ancient Pottery of Transjordan: An Introduction Utilizing Published Whole
Forms: Late Neolithic through Late Islamic. Berrien Springs, MI: Institute of
Archaeology/Horn Archaeological Museum.
16
Herr, L. G.
1989
1991
1992
1997
2000
2002
Madaba Plains Project: The 1984 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and
Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Madaba Plains Project: The 1987 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and
Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Shifts in Settlement Patterns of Late Bronze and Iron Age Ammon. Studies in the
History and Archaeology of Jordan IV: 175-177.
Madaba Plains Project: The 1989 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Vicinity and
Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Madaba Plains Project: The 1992 Season at Tell el-'Umeiri and Subsequent
Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Madaba Plains Project: The 1994 Season at Tall al-'Umayri and Subsequent
Studies. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Herr, L., and Christopherson, G.
1998 Excavation Manual: Madaba Plains Project. Berrien Springs, MI: Madaba Plains
Project in cooperation with Andrews University Institute of Archaeology.
Homès-Fredericq, D.; Hennessy, J. B.; and Zayadine, F.
1986 Archaeology of Jordan. Leuven: Peeters.
Ibach, R.
1987
Archaeological Survey of the Hesban Region. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews
University Press.
Ibrahim, M. M.
1974 Second Season of Excavations at Sahab, 1973, Preliminary Report. Annual of the
Department of the Antiquities Jordan 19: 55-61.
1987 Sahab and its Foreign Relations. Studies in the Archaeology of Jordan 3: 73-81.
1992 Sahab. Anchor Bible Dictionary 5: 895-900.
Kafafi, Z.
1983
Kletter, R.
2002
The Local Pottery. Pp. 33-46 in The Amman Airport Excavations, ed. L. G. Herr.
Winona Lake, IN: American Schools of Oriental Research.
A Monkey Figurine from Tel Beth Shemesh. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21:
147-152.
Knauf, E. A.
1991 Eglon and Ophrah: Two Toponymic Notes on the Book of Judges. Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament 51: 25-44.
17
LaBianca, O. S., and Younker, R. W.
1994 The Kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Edom: The Archaeology of Society in Late
Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (CA. 1400-500 BCE). In: The Archaeology of
Society in the Holy Land, ed. T. E. Levy. New York: Facts on File.
Landes, G.
1961
Lemaire, A.
1981
The Material Civilization of the Ammonites. Biblical Archaeologist XXIV: 6686.
Galaad et Makir: Remarques sur la tribu de Manasse a l'est du Jourdain. Vetus
Testamentum 31: 39-61.
Ma'ayeh, F. S.
1960a Recent Discoveries in Jordan. Annual of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan
4-5: 114-116.
1960b Chronique Archeologique: Amman, Safout, Jerash, Um Qeis, Quailbe (ancienne
Abila). Revue Biblique 67: 226-229.
Mallon, A.
1934
Les Tells Riverains du Jabboq Inferieur (Sukkoth, Phanuel, Nobe). in
Miscellanea Biblica Edita a Pontificio Instituto Biblico ad celebrandum annum
XXV ex quo conditum est institutum. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.
McGovern, P.
1986 The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Central Transjordan: The Baq'ah Valley
Project 1977-1981. Philadelphia: University Museum.
1989 The Baq'ah Valley Project 1987: Khirbet Umm Ad-Dananir and Al-Qesir. Annual
of the Department of the Antiquities Jordan 33: 123-136.
1992 Settlement Patterns of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages in the Greater Amman
Area. Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan IV: 179-183.
McNamara, K. G.
2004 Fossil Echinoids from Neolithic and Iron Age Sites in Jordan. Pp. 459-466 in
Echinoderms: Munchen Proceedings of the 11th International Echinoderm
Conference, 6-10 October 2003, Munich, Germany, eds. Heinzeller and
Nebelsick. London: Taylor and Francis Group.
Merling, D., and Younker, R. W.
2000 Madaba Plains Project: Tall Jalul. Andrews University Seminary Studies 38: 4558.
Merrill, S.
1881
East of the Jordan: A Record of Travel and Observation in the Countries of
Moab, Gilead, and Bashan. London: Richard Bentley & Son.
18
Noth, M.
1941
Beitrage zur Geschichte des Ostjordanlandes. Palastinajahrbuch 37: 51-101.
Oded, B.
1971
Jogbehah and Rujm el-Jebeha. Palestinian Exploration Quarterly 103: 33-34.
Olavarri, E.
1965
Sondages a 'Aro'er sur l'Arnon. Revue Biblique 72: 77-94.
Ottoson, M.
1969
Gilead: Tradition and History. Lund, Sweden: CWK Gleerup.
Petter, T. D.
2005
Diversity and Uniformity on the Frontier: Ethnic Identity in the Central Highlands
of Jordan During the Iron I. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Toronto.
Pritchard, J. B.
1980 The Cemetery at Tell es-Saidiyeh, Jordan. Philadelphia: University Museum
University of Pennsylvania.
1985 Tell es-Saidiyeh: Excavations on the Tell, 1964-1966. Philadelphia: University
Museum University of Pennsylvania.
Rainey, A. F.
2008 Personal communication. Boston, MA.
Ray, P. J.
2001
Tell Hesban and Vicinity in the Iron Age. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews
University Press.
Routledge, B. E.
2004 Moab in the Iron Age: Hegemony, Polity, Archaeology. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Sauer, J. A.
1986
Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages: A Critique of Glueck's Synthesis.
Bulletin for the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 1-26.
Schroer, S., and Eggler, J.
2006 Monkey. in Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East, eds. J.
Eggler and C. Uelinger.
Thompson, H. O.
1986 An Iron Age Tomb at Madaba. in The Archaeology of Jordan and Other Studies,
eds. L. T. Geraty and L. G. Herr. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University.
19
Tristram, H. B.
1865 The Land of Israel. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
Tubb, J. N.
1988
Tell es-Sa'idiyeh: Preliminary Report on the First Three Seasons of Renewed
Excavations. Levant 20: 23-80.
Tushingham, A. D.
1972 The Excavations at Dibon (Dhiban) in Moab: The Third Campaign, 1952-53.
Cambridge: American Schools of Oriental Research.
1992 A "Neo-Babylonian" Seal from Tell Taanach. Bulletin for the American Schools
of Oriental Research 286: 15-18.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
1989 The North Jordan Water Resources Investigation Project. Amman-Zarqa Basin.
in Amman, Jordan: Water Authority of Jordan.
Warren, C.
1870
Expedition to East of the Jordan. Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement
6: 284-306.
Weippert, M.
1979a The Israelite Conquest and the Evidence from Transjordan. Pp. 15-34 in Symposia
Celebrating the 75th Anniversary of the Founding of the American Schools of
Oriental Research (1900-1975). ed. F. M. Cross. Cambridge.
1979b Ein Siegel vom Tell Safut. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 95: 173177.
1980 Berichtigung. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 96: 100.
Wimmer, D. H.
1985 Third Archaeological Expedition to Tell Safut. Liber Annuus XXXV: 408-410.
1987a The Excavations at Tell Safut. Studies in the Archaeology of Jordan 3: 279-282.
1987b Tell Safut Excavations, 1982-1985 Preliminary Report. Annual of the Department
of the Antiquities Jordan 31: 159-174.
1989 Safut (Tell). Pp. 512-515 in Archaeology of Jordan II: Field Reports, eds. D.
Homes-Fredericq and J. B. Hennessy.
1991 Tell Safut. American Journal of Archaeology 95: 268.
1992 Safut. Anchor Bible Dictionary 5: 896-897.
1994 Tell Safut. American Journal of Archaeology 98: 540-541.
1997 Safut, Tell. Pp. 448-450 in Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East,
ed. E. Meyers.
Winnett, F. V., and Reed, W. L.
1964 The Excavations at Dibon (Dhiban) in Moab. New Haven: American Schools of
Oriental Research.
20
Yassine, K.
1984
Tell el Mazar I: Cemetery A. Amman: University of Jordan.
Younker, R. W.
1993 The Joint Madaba Plains Project: A Preliminary Report of the 1992 Season,
Including the Regional Survey and Excavations at Tell Jalul and Tell El-'Umeiri.
Andrews University Seminary Studies 31: 205-238.
1996 Preliminary Report of the 1994 Season of the Madaba Plains Project: Regional
Survey, Tall Al-'Umayri and Tall Jalul. Andrews University Seminary Studies 34
65-92.
1997 Preliminary Report of the 1996 Season of the Madaba Plains Project: Regional
Survey, Tall Al-'Umayri and Tall Jalul Excavations. Andrews University
Seminary Studies 35: 227-240.
2007 Preliminary Report of the 2000, 2004, and 2005 Seasons at Tell Jalul, Jordan
(Madaba Plains Project). Andrews University Seminary Studies 45: 73-86.
Zayadine, F.
1973 Middle Bronze Age. Pp. 18-19 in The Archaeological Heritage of Jordan: The
Archaeological Periods and Sites (East Bank), ed. G. Barakat. Amman,
Department of Antiquities.
21