CRIME PREVENTION READING LIST
Updated May 2013
The readings are broken down by four major sections that represent our respective
courses in the crime prevention field. We do not always repeat readings across the four
sections and their subsections, though we could, given the overlapping relevance in the
subject matter. Students need to understand the relevance of readings from other
sections within any one section of this reading list. For example, situational crime
prevention is relevant to white collar crime as well as victimization and fear of crime.
SECTION 1: COMMUNITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY
This section of the reading list is aimed at providing an overview of two major strains of
ecological theories – theories that intend to account for the spatial patterning of crime.
Both of these theoretical traditions can serve as the foundation for crime prevention,
albeit different types of crime prevention. Recently, work has begun integrating these
two traditions. The following reading provides a nice overview of types of crime
prevention. Community crime prevention and situational crime prevention are most
relevant to the theories covered by community and environmental criminology:
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Crime prevention and public policy. Pp. 3-19
in The
Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention, edited by B. C. Welsh & D. P.
Farrington, New York: Oxford University Press.
PART 1. THE CHICAGO SCHOOL: SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION AND THE
SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF CRIME
One ecological tradition has roots in “the Chicago School,” and it involves social
disorganization theory and its various derivatives (e.g., the systemic model, collective
efficacy theory) as well as work on street codes and crime. This ecological tradition
emphasizes the importance of community-level structural disadvantage, weak informal
social control, and attenuated culture (or criminal subculture) in understanding crime
concentration at the neighborhood level. This tradition serves as the foundation for many
community crime prevention initiatives, including the famous Chicago Area Project,
community mobilization and community development programs, community policing,
and so on. The various sub-sections below trace the theoretical development of this
ecological tradition, followed by some summary readings on crime prevention initiatives
based on this tradition.
1A. Origins and Foundations of Social Disorganization Theory
Shaw, C. R. (1930/1966). The Jack Roller: A Delinquent Boy’s Own Story. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
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Shaw, C.R. & McKay, H.D. (1942/1969). Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 3-189, 313-388
1B: Community and Systems of Informal Social Control (The systemic model):
Interpreting, Testing, and Extending Shaw & McKay
Required Readings:
Bursik, R. J., Jr.. (1988). Social disorganization and theories of crime and delinquency:
Problems and prospects.” Criminology, 26, 521-539.
Sampson, R. J. & Groves, W.B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social
disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774-802.
Bursik, R. J., Jr. (1999). The informal control of crime through neighborhood networks.
Sociological Focus, 32, 85-97.
Velez, M. B. (2001). The role of public social control in urban neighborhoods: A
multilevel analysis of victimization risk. Criminology, 39, 837-864.
Bellair, P. (1997). Social interaction and community crime: Examining the importance
of neighbor networks. Criminology, 35, 677-703.
Warner, B. D. & Wilcox Rountree, P. (1997). Local social ties in a community and
crime model: Questioning the systemic nature of informal social control. Social
Problems, 44, 520-536.
Pattillo, M. E. (1998). Sweet Mother and gangbangers: Managing crime in a middle
class neighborhood. Social Forces, 76, 747-774.
Venkatesh, S. (1997). The social organization of street gang activity in an urban ghetto.
American Journal of Sociology, 103, 82-111.
Warner, B. D. (2007). Directly Intervene or Call the Authorities? A Study of Forms of
Neighborhood Social Control within a Social Disorganization Framework.
Criminology, 45, 99-129.
Wilkinson, D.L. (2007). Local social ties and willingness to intervene: Textured views
among violent urban youth of neighborhood social control dynamics and
situations. Justice Quarterly, 24, 185-220.
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1C: Community and the Truly Disadvantaged
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged: The inner city, the
underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ID. Community and Collective Efficacy
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S.W. & Earls, F.J. (1997). Neighborhoods
and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science,
277, 918-924.
Morenoff, J. D., Sampson, R.J. & Raudenbush, S.W. (2001). Neighborhood inequality,
collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology, 39,
517-560.
Sampson, R. J. (2002). Transcending tradition: New direction in community research,
Chicago style. Criminology, 40, 213-230.
Sampson, R. J. (2006). Collective efficacy theory: Lessons learned and directions for
future research. In Francis T. Cullen, John Paul Wright, and Kristie R. Blevins
(eds.), Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory – Advances in
Criminological Theory, Vol. 15. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
1E: Community and Cultural Codes
Sampson, R. J. & Wilson, W.J. (1995). Toward a theory of race, crime and urban
inequality. In Crime & Inequality, J. Hagan & R.D. Peterson (eds.), 37-54.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Samspon, R.J. & Jeglum-Bartusch, D. (1998). Legal cynicism and (subcultural?)
tolerance of deviance: The neighborhood context of racial differences. Law &
Society Review, 32, 777-804.
Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the Streets: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the
Inner City. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
Kubrin, C.E. & Weitzer, R. (2003). Homicide: Concentrated disadvantage and
neighborhood culture. Social Problems, 50, 157-180.
Baumer, E., Horney, J., Felson, R., & Lauritsen, J.L. ( 2003). Neighborhood
disadvantage and the nature of violence. Criminology, 41, 39-71.
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Stewart, E. & Simons, R. L. (2006). Structure and culture in African-American
adolescent violence: A partial test of the code of the streets thesis. Justice
Quarterly, 23, 1-33.
Stewart, E., Schreck, C.J., & Simons, R.L. (2006). “I Ain’t Gonna Let No One
Disrespect Me: Does the code of the street reduce or increase violent
victimization among African American adolescents? Journal of Research in
Crime and Delinquency, 43, 427-458.
Stewart, E. &Simons, R.L. (2010). Race, code of the street, and violent delinquency: A
multlilevel investigation of neighborhood street culture and individual norms of
violence. Criminology, 48, 569-605.
1F: Community Crime Prevention
Snodgrass, J. (1976). Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay: Chicago Criminologists.
The British Journal of Criminology, 16, 1-19.
Ludwig, J., & Burdick-Will, J. (2012). Poverty deconcentration and the prevention of
crime. Pp. 189-206 in The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention, edited by B.
C. Welsh & D. P. Farrington, New York: Oxford University Press.
Rosenbaum, D. P., & Schuck, A. M. (2012). Comprehensive community partnerships
for preventing crime. Pp. 226-246. in The Oxford Handbook of Crime
Prevention, edited by B. C. Welsh & D. P. Farrington, New York: Oxford
University Press.
PART 2. ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY: OPPORTUNITY AND THE
SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF CRIME
A second ecological tradition is a more contemporary perspective in comparison to the
Chicago School tradition. Rather than emphasizing the spatial distribution of crime as a
function of neighborhood social disorganization, etc., this perspective emphasizes the
role of crime opportunity at various levels of analysis, with particular attention paid to
sub-neighborhood levels, or micro-ecological places. The following readings provide a
nice overview of 1) the shift in ecological criminology down the “cone of resolution”
from neighborhoods to smaller-scale places and 2) the accompanying shift in theories,
from disorganization-based theories to opportunity-based theories:
Taylor, Ralph B. (1998). Crime and small-scale place: What we know, what we can
prevent, and what else we need to know. In Crime and place: Plenary Papers of
the 1997 Conference on Criminal Justice Research and Evaluation. Washington,
D.C.: NIJ.
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Eck, J. E., Chainey, S., Cameron, J., Leitner, M. & Wilson, R. E.(2005). Mapping Crime:
Understanding Hot Spots. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National
Institute of Justice. NCJ 209393. CHAPTER 1 ONLY.
The importance of crime opportunity in understanding the patterning of crime events
began to emerge in the 1970s through various, independent theories, including
environmental design theories, rational choice theory, routine activity theory, and
offender search theory. Today, these various theories have coalesced to form a broad
opportunity perspective, often referred to as “environmental criminology.” Theories
comprising environmental criminology underlie situational approaches to crime
prevention, including place-based crime prevention, order-maintenance, and problemoriented policing. Readings pertaining compatible crime prevention strategies are listed
below:
Wilson, J.Q. & Kelling, G. (1982). Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood
safety. The Atlantic Monthly ( March), 29-38.
Smith, M.J. & Clarke, R.V. (2012). Situational crime prevention: Classifying techniques
using “good enough” theory. Pp. 291-315 in The Oxford Handbook of Crime
Prevention, edited by B.C. Welsh and D.P. Farrington. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Eck, J.E. & Guerette, R. T. (2012). Place-based crime prevention: Theory, evidence, and
policy. Pp. 354- 383 in The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention, edited by
B.C. Welsh and D.P. Farrington. New York: Oxford University Press.
The various sub-sections below are intended to provide key readings within each of the
specific theoretical sub-areas comprising environmental criminology.
2A. Environmental l Design and Order
Newman, O. (1972/1973). Defensible Space: Crime Prevention Through Urban Design.
New York: Macmillan.
Newman, O. (1996). Creating Defensible Space. US Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.
Merry, S.E. (1981). Defensible space undefended: Social factors in crime control
through environmental design. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 16, 397-422.
Greenberg, S., Rohe, W. and Williams, J. (1982). Safety in urban neighborhoods: A
comparison of physical characteristics and informal territorial control in high and
low crime neighborhoods. Population and Environment, 5, 141-165.
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Taylor, R.B. & Harrell, A. (1996). Physical Environment and Crime. US Department of
Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. NCJ 157311.
Donnelly, P.G.& Kimble, C.E. (1997). Community organizing, environmental change,
and neighborhood
crime. Crime and Delinquency, 43, 493-511.
Kurtz, E., Koons,B. & Taylor, R.B. (1998). Land use, physical deterioration, residentbased control, and calls for service on urban streetblocks. Justice Quarterly, 15,
121-149.
Astor, R.A., Meyer, H.A & Behre, W.J. (1999). Unowned places and times: Maps and
interviews about violence in high schools. American Educational Research
Journal, 36, 3-42.
2B. Offender Decision-Making/Rational Choice
Clarke, R.V. & Cornish, D. (1985). Modeling offender’s decisions: A framework for
research and policy. In Crime & Justice: An Annual Review of Research.
Wright, R, T. & Decker, S.H. (1997). Armed Robbers in Action: Stickups and Street
Culture. Northeastern University Press.
Shover, N. (1996). Great Pretenders: Pursuits and Careers of Persistent Thieves.
Boulder, CO: Westview. Chapters 1, 4, and 5.
Hochstetler, A. (2001). Opportunities and decisions: Interactional dynamics in robbery
and burglary groups. Criminology, 39, 737-763.
Jacobs, B. & Wright, R.T. (1999). Stick-up, street culture and offender motivation.
Criminology, 37,149-173.
Bernasco, W. & Block, R. (2009). Where offenders choose to attack: A discrete choice
model of robberies in Chicago. Criminology, 47, 93-130.
2C: Routine Activities and Offender Searches
Routine activities and aggregate crime rates:
Cohen, L. E, & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine
activity approach.. American Sociological Review, 44, 588-608.
Cohen, L.E., Felson, M. & Land, K.C. (1980). Property crime rates in the United States:
A macrodynamic analysis, 1947-1977; with ex ante forecasts for the mid-1980s.
American Journal of Sociology, 86, 90-118.
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Messner, S. F. & Blau, J.R. (1987). Routine leisure activities and rates of crime: A
macro-level analysis. Social Forces, , 1035-1052.
Routine activities and crime at places:
Sherman, L., Gartin, P. & Buerger, M. (1989). Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine
activities and the criminology of place. Criminology, 27, 27-55.
Roncek, D.W. & Maier, P. (1991). Bars, blocks, and crimes revisited: Linking the
theory of routine activities to the empiricism of ‘Hot Spots.’ Criminology, 29,
725-753.
Weisburd, D., Bushway, S., Lum, C., and Yang, S.M. (2004). Trajectories of crime at
places: A longitudinal study of street segments in the city of Seattle.
Criminology, 42, 283-321.
Groff, E.R., Weisburd, D., & Yang, S. (2010). Is it important to examine crime trends at
a local “micro” level? A longitudinal analysis of street to street variability in
crime trajectories. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 26, 7-32.
Braga, A.A., Hureau, D.M., & Papachristos, A.V. (2011). The relevance of micro places
to citywide robbery trends: A longitudinal analysis of robbery incidents at street
corners and block faces in Boston. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 48, 7-32.
Routine activities, offender searches, and crime at places:
Brantingham, P.L. and P.J. Brantingham. (1993). Nodes, paths, and edges:
Considerations on the complexity of crime and the physical environment. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 13,3-28.
Brantingham, P.& Brantingham, P. (1995). Crime generators and crime attractors.
European Journal on Criminal Policy & Research ,3, 5-26.
Brantingham, P. & Brantingham, P. (1999). A theoretical model of crime hot spot
generation. Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention 8(1), 7-26. Routine Activities
and the Ecology of Victimization
Cohen, L.E., Kluegel, J.R., & Land, K.C. (1981). Social inequality and predatory
victimization: An exposition and test of a formal theory. American Sociological
Review, 46, 505-524.
Miethe, T.D., Stafford, M.C. & Long, J.S. (1987). Social differentiation in criminal
victimization: A test of routine activities/lifestyle theories. American
Sociological Review, 52, 184-194.
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Mustaine, E.E., & Tewksbury, R. (1998). Predicting risks of larceny theft victimization:
A routine activity analysis using refined lifestyle measures. Criminology, 36,
829-857.
PART 3: Opportunity, Disorganization, and the Ecology of Crime: Integrative
Approaches
While the social disorganization (Chicago School) and opportunity (environmental
criminology) traditions have typically been seen as competing, some contemporary
scholarship challenges that idea. Instead, integrative work emphasizes the compatibility
of the two perspectives. Work illustrating this sort of integration is provided below.
Sampson, R.J. & Wooldredge, J. (1987). Linking the micro- and macro-level dimensions
of lifestyle-routine activity and opportunity models of predatory victimization.
Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 371-393.
Smith, D. A. & Jarjoura, G. R. (1989). Household characteristics, neighborhood
composition, and victimization risk. Social Forces, 68, 621-640.
Miethe, T.D. & McDowall, D. (1993). Contextual effects in models of criminal
victimization. Social Forces, 71, 741-759.
Wilcox Rountree, P., Land, K.C. & Miethe, T.D. (1994). Macro- micro integration in the
study of victimization: A hierarchical logistic model analysis across Seattle
neighborhoods. Criminology, 32, 387-414.
Rice, K.J., & Smith, W.R. (2002). Socioecological models of automotive theft:
Integrating routine activity and social disorganization approaches. Journal of
Research in Crime & Delinquency, 39, 304-336.
Fisher, B.S., Sloan, J.J., Cullen, F.T. & Lu, C. (1998). Crime in the Ivory Tower: The
level and sources of student victimization. Criminology, 36, 671-710.
Wilcox, P., Land, K.C. & Hunt, S.A. (2003). Criminal Circumstance: A Dynamic,
Multicontextual Criminal Opportunity Theory. New York: Aldine deGruyter.
Chapters 2-5.
Wilcox, P., Madensen, T.D., and Skubak Tillyer, M. (2007). Guardianship in context:
Implications for burglary risk and prevention. Criminology, 45, 771-804.
Wilcox, P., Gialopsos, B.M., & Land, K.C. (2013). Multilevel criminal opportunity. In
Handbook of Criminological Theory, edited by F.T. Cullen and P.Wilcox. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Weisburd, D., Groff, E.R., & Yang, S. (2012). The Criminology of Place. New York:
Oxford University Press.
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Section 2: APPLIED CRIME PREVENTION
The area of applied crime prevention is a redundancy, as all crime prevention is an
application. Nevertheless, it is important to distinguish between “dirty hands” and “clean
hands” theory and research. This is about getting your hands dirty. Consequently, this
area overlaps substantially with other areas of criminal justice studies, particularly
policing, as well as other parts of the crime prevention field.
To keep up with developments in this area (something we expect students to do without
excessive reminders), you should pay attention to articles published by Crime Prevention
Studies, Security Journal, the British Home Office, and other sources. Several websites
are listed at the end of this list to facilitate your study, as well as to direct your attention
to a rich source of non-traditional materials that will help you understand crime
prevention as practiced.
Ultimately, you are accountable for mastering the materials and concepts, whether they
are on any reading list or not.
PERSPECTIVES: What is crime prevention? What are the different forms of crime
prevention and how do they differ? Why is crime prevention multidisciplinary? How
does a crime sciences approach to crime prevention differ from a criminological
approach? What does it mean to think realistically? What would in mean not to think
realistically about crime prevention? What is the importance of context in crime
prevention? What is crime science and how does it differ from criminology?
Clarke, R. V. 2004. Technology, Criminology and Crime Science. European Journal on
Criminal Policy and Research, 10, 55-63.
Felson, Marcus and Ronald V. Clarke. 1998. Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical
Theory for Crime Prevention, vol. Paper 98. London: Home Office, Research
Development and Statistics Directorate.
Goldstein, Herman (1979) Improving Policing: A Problem-Oriented Approach. Crime
and Delinquency. 25(2) 236-258
Laycock, G. (2005). Defining Crime Science. In M. Smith & N. Tilley (Eds.), Crime
Science: New Approaches to Preventing and Detecting Crime (pp. 3-24).
Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Mayhew, Pat (1977) Defensible Space: The Current Status of a Crime Prevention Theory.
The Howard Journal. 18: 150-159
Pease, K. (2005). Science in the Service of Crime Reduction. In N. Tilley (Ed.),
Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 171-198).
Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
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Tilley, N. 2005. Introduction: Thinking Realistically about Crime Prevention. In N.
Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 3-13).
Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Weick, Karl E. 1984. Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Problems. American
Psychologist. 39(1): 40-49.
CRIME CONCENTRATION: How is crime concentrated and why? Why is crime
concentration important for crime prevention? What is the role of repeats? How are
repeat places and repeat victimization different and similar? What is the difference
between a repeat, near repeat, and virtual repeat? Are hot products examples of crime
concentration? Why? What are the implications of concentration for developing and
implementing prevention strategies? What are the advantages and limitation of mapping
for addressing crime concentration? What forms of maps are available for examining
concentration and what are their advantages and disadvantages?
Bowers, K. J., & Johnson, S. D. (2005). Who Commits Near Repeats? A Test of the
Boost Explanation. Western Criminology Review, 5(3), 12-24.
Burrows, J., & Hopkins, M. (2005). Business and Crime. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of
Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 486-515). Cullompton, Devon:
Willan.
Clarke, R. V. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and Reducing Demand
for Stolen Goods (Vol. Paper 112). London: Home Office, Research Development
and Statistics Directorate.
Eck, J. E. (1997). What Do Those Dots Mean? The Role of Theory in Crime Mapping.
In D. Weisburd & T. McEwen (Eds.), Crime Mapping (Vol. volume 8, pp. 379406). Monsey NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Eck, J. E. (2001). Policing and Crime Event Concentration. In R. Meier, L. Kennedy &
V. Sacco (Eds.), The Process and Structure of Crime: Criminal Events and Crime
Analysis (pp. 249-276). New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions.
Eck, J. E., Clarke, R. V., & Guerette, R. T. (2007). Risky Facilities: Crime Concentration
in Homogeneous Sets of Establishments and Facilities. In G. Farrell, K. J.
Bowers, S. D. Johnson & M. Townsley (Eds.), Imagination for Crime Prevention
(Vol. 19). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press. (Also see, Clarke, Eck and
Guerette tools guide at www.popcenter.org)
Eck, J. E., Gersh, J., & Taylor, C. (2000). Finding Hotspots Through Repeat Address
Mapping. In V. Goldsmith, P. G. McGuire, J. Mollenkopf & T. Ross (Eds.),
Analyzing Crime Patterns: Frontiers of Practice (pp. 49-64). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
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Eck, J. E., & Weisburd, D. (1995). Crime Places in Crime Theory. In J. E. Eck & D.
Weisburd (Eds.), Crime and Place (Vol. volume 4, pp. 1-33). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Farrell, G. (1995). Preventing Repeat Victimization. In M. Tonry & D. P. Farrington
(Eds.), Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention (Vol.
19, pp. 469-534). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Farrell, G. (2005). Progress and Prospects in the Prevention of Repeat Victimization. In
N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 143170). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Felson, M. (1987) Routine Activities and Crime Prevention in the Developing
Metropolis. Criminology. 25(4): 911-931.
Felson, M. (1995). Those Who Discourage Crime. In J. E. Eck & D. Weisburd (Eds.),
Crime and Place (Vol. volume 4, pp. 53-66). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice
Press.
Roncek, Dennis W. & Ralph Bell (1981) Bars, Blocks, and Crimes. Journal of
Environmental Systems. 11(1): 35-47.
Sherman, Lawrence S., Patrick R. Gartin, & Michael E. Buerger (1989) Hot Spots of
Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place. Criminology.
27(1) 27-55.
OFFENDER DECISION MAKING
Does “rationality” mater? In what ways? What does the concept of full rationality
mean? What is bounded rationality and how do heuristics fit into this concept? How
does bounded rationality differ from full rationality (aka, economic rationality or
optimizing)? If we assume offenders are not rational, how do we deal with offender
choice? Are criticisms of rationality assumptions scientific or normative? What is the
difference between “theory” and “perspective” and why does Clarke refer to the rational
choice perspective (rather than theory).
Arrow, Kenneth J. (1963). Social Choice and Individual Values. 2nd Edition. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Chapters 1 and 2.
Carroll, J., & Weaver, F. (1986). Shoplifters' Perceptions of Crime Opportunities: A
Process-Tracing Study. In D. Cornish & R. V. Clarke (Eds.), The Reasoning
Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (pp. 19-38). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Clarke, R. V., & Cornish, D. B. (2000). Rational Choice. In R. Paternoster & R. Bachman
(Eds.), Explaining Crime and Criminals: Essays in Contemporary
Criminological Theory (pp. 23-42). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
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Cornish, Derek (1994) The Procedural Analysis of Offending and Its Relevance for
Situational Prevention. In Ronald V. Clarke, ed. Crime Prevention Studies vol 3,
Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press. pp 151-196.
Cornish, D. (1993). Theories of Action in Criminology: Learning Theory and Rational
Choice Approaches. In R. V. Clarke & M. Felson (Eds.), Routine Activity, and
Rational Choice (Vol. 5, pp. 351-382). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Cornish, Derek & Ronald V. Clarke (1986) The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice
Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer-Verlag (particularly note the
introduction).
Cusson, Maurice (1993) Situational Deterrence: Fear During the Criminal Event. In
Ronald V. Clarke, ed. Crime Prevention Studies vol. 1, Monsey, NY: Criminal
Justice Press. pp 55-68.
Felson, M. (1986). Linking Criminal Choices, Routine Activities, Informal Control, and
Criminal Outcomes. In D. Cornish & R. V. Clarke (Eds.), The Reasoning
Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (pp. 119-128). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Gill, M. (2005). Reducing the Capacity to Offend: Restricting Resources for Offending.
In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp.
306-328). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Girgerenzer, G., & Selten, R. (2001). Rethinking Rationality. In G. Girgerenzer & R.
Selten (Eds.), Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Tool Box (pp. 1-12).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Homel, R. (2005). Developmental Crime Prevention. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of
Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 71-106). Cullompton, Devon:
Willan.
Johnson, S. D., & Bowers, K. J. (2003). Opportunity is in the Eye of the Beholder: The
Role of Publicity in Crime Prevention. Criminology and Public Policy, 2(3), 497524.
Opp, K.-D. (1997). 'Limited Rationality' and Crime. In G. Newman, R. V. Clarke & S. G.
Shohan (Eds.), Rational Choice and Situational Crime Prevention (pp. 47-64).
Aldershot: Ashgate.
Pape, R. A. (2003). The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. American Political
Science Review. 97(3), 343-361.
Petrosino, A. J., & Brensilber, D. (2003). The Motives, Methods and Decision Making of
Convenience Store Robbers: Interviews with 28 Incarcerated Offenders in
Massachusetts. In M. J. Smith & D. B. Cornish (Eds.), Theory for Practice in
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Situational Crime Prevention (Vol. 16, pp. 237-264). Monsey, NY: Criminal
Justice Press.
Selten, R. (2001). What is Bounded Rationality? In G. Girgerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.),
Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Tool Box (pp. 13-36). Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Simon, H. A. (1987). Rationality in Psychology and Economics. In R. M. Hogarth & M.
W. Reder (Eds.), Rational Choice: The Contrast between Economics and
Psychology (pp. 25-40). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Simpson, S. S., Piquero, N. L., & Paternoster, R. (2002). Rationality and Corporate
Offending Decisions. In A. R. Piquero & S. G. Tibbetts (Eds.), Rational Choice
and Criminal Behavior: Recent Research and Future Challenges (pp. 25-40).
New York: Routledge.
Todd, P. M. (2001). Fast and Frugal Heuristics for Environmentally Bounded Minds. In
G. Girgerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.), Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Tool Box
(pp. 51-70). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1987). Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions. In
R. M. Hogarth & M. W. Reder (Eds.), Rational Choice: The Contrast between
Economics and Psychology (pp. 67-94). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Wortley, Richard (2001) A Classification of Techniques for Controlling Situational
Precipitators of Crime. Security Journal 14(4): 63-82.
FORMING INTERVENTIONS
What is the relationship between situational crime prevention and a rational choice
perspective? What do we mean by opportunity structure and how does situational crime
prevention address it? Consider mainstream criminological approaches to preventing
crime—Is situational crime prevention antithetical, supportive, or neutral (be specific for
each approach)? What is the role of analysis in situational crime prevention? Why does
context matter in situational crime prevention? What exactly is “context”? Why does
crime specificity matter? Is there a form of crime for which situational crime prevention
is unsuited? Why? How does situational crime prevention fit with routine activity theory
(see Crime Prevention Theory reading list)?
Clarke, R. V. (1995). Situational Crime Prevention. In M. Tonry & D. Farrington (Eds.),
Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention (Vol. 19).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V. (2005). Seven Misconceptions of Situational Crime Prevention. In
N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 3970). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
13
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (2003). Opportunities, Precipitators and Criminal
Decisions: A Reply to Wortley's Critique of Situation Crime Prevention. In M. J.
Smith & D. B. Cornish (Eds.), Theory for Practice in Situational Crime
Prevention (Vol. 16, pp. 41-96). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Ekblom, P. (2005). Designing Products Against Crime. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of
Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 203-244). Cullompton, Devon:
Willan.
Also see, http://www.e-doca.net/Resources/Lectures/Less Crime by Design.htm
Hirschfield, A. (2005). Analysis for Intervention. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime
Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 629-673). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Homel, R., Hauritz, M., McIlwain, G., Wortley, R., & Carvolth, R. (1997). Preventing
Drunkenness and Violence Around Nightclubs in a Tourist Resort. In R. V.
Clarke (Ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (Second ed.,
pp. 263-282). Harrow and Heston: Albany, NY.
Knutsson, J., & Kuhlhorn, E. (1997). Macro Measures against Crime: The Example of
Check Forgeries. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful
Case Studies (Second ed., pp. 113-121). Harrow and Heston: Albany, NY.
Laycock, G. (2005). Deciding What to Do. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime
Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 674-698). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Poyner, B., & Webb, B. (1997). Reducing Thefts from Shopping Bags in City Center
Markets. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case
Studies (Second ed., pp. 83-89). Harrow and Heston: Guilderland, NY.
Shaftoe, H., & Read, T. (2005). Planning Out Crime: The Appliance of Science or an
Act of Faith. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community
Safety (pp. 245-265). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Sutton, M. (2005). Complicity, Trading Dynamics and Prevalence in Stolen Goods
Markets. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community
Safety (pp. 294-305). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Tilley, N. (1997). Realism, Situational Rationality and Crime Prevention. In G. Newman,
R. V. Clarke & S. G. Shohan (Eds.), Rational Choice and Situational Crime
Prevention (pp. 95-114). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Tilley, N. (2005). Crime Prevention and System Design. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of
Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 266-293). Cullompton, Devon:
Willan.
Tilley, N. (2005). Driving Down Crime at Motorway Service Areas. In M. Smith & N.
14
Tilley (Eds.), Crime Science: New Approaches to Preventing and Detecting
Crime (pp. 104-125). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Weisel, D. L. (2003). The Sequence of Analysis in Solving Problems. In J. Knutsson
(Ed.), Problem-Oriented Policing: From Innovation to Mainstream (Vol. 15, pp.
115-146). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
APPLICATIONS IN POLICING AND CORRECTIONS
How do policing and corrections use opportunity blocking? Does doing so require a
substantial change in these institutions? What is problem-oriented policing? How do
institutional corrections use opportunity blocking? How can environmental criminology
be applied to community corrections.
Cullen, F. T., Eck, J. E., & Lowenkamp, C. (2002). Environmental Corrections: A New
Framework for Effective Probation and Parole Supervision. Federal Probation,
66(2), 28-39.
Eck, J. E. (2003). Police Problems: The Complexity of Problem Theory, Research and
Evaluation. In J. Knutsson (Ed.), Problem-Oriented Policing: From Innovation to
Mainstream (Vol. 15, pp. 67-102). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Eck, J. E., & Spelman, W. (1987). Who Ya Gonna Call: The Police as Problem-Busters.
Crime and Delinquency, 33(1), 31-52.
Kelling, G. L. (2005). Community Crime Reduction: Activating Formal and Informal
Control. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community Safety
(pp. 107-142). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
La Vigne, N. G. (1994). Rational Choice and Inmate Disputes over Phone Use on Rikers
Island. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies (Vol. 3, pp. 109-126).
Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Weisburd, D., & Eck, J. E. (2004). What Can Police Do to Reduce Crime, Disorder and
Fear? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
593(May), 42-65.
Wortley, R. (2003). Situational Crime Prevention and Prison Control: Lessons for Each
Other. In M. J. Smith & D. B. Cornish (Eds.), Theory for Practice in Situational
Crime Prevention (Vol. 16, pp. 97-118). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
OWNERS AND POLITICS
What are the advantages and disadvantages of working through place managers to
prevent crime? Could you apply situational crime prevention to the control of place
managers? How? What are the likely relationships among place managers, police, and
local politicians, and how is this likely to influence the success of proposed crime
15
prevention interventions? What is the role of super controllers in implementing place
based crime prevention?
Buerger, M. E. (1998). The Politics of Third-Party Policing. In L. Mazerolle & J. Roehl
(Eds.), Civil Remedies and Crime Prevention (Vol. 9, pp. 89-116). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Bichler-Robertson, G. (1998). Place Managers, Slumlords and Crime in
Low Rent Apartment Buildings. Security Journal, 11(1), 11-19.
Eck, J. E., & Wartell, J. (1998). Improving the Management of Rental Properties With
Drug Problems: A Randomized Experiment. In L. Mazerolle & J. Roehl (Eds.),
Civil Remedies and Crime Prevention (Vol. volume 9). Monsey, NY: Criminal
Justice Press.
Gilling, D. (2005). Partnership and Crime Prevention. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of
Crime Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 734-756). Cullompton, Devon:
Willan.
Mazerolle, L. G., Kadleck, C., & Roehl, J. (1998). Controlling Drug and Disorder
Problems: The Role of Place Managers. Criminology, 36(2), 371-403.
Sampson, R., Eck, J.E. and Dunham, J. 2010. Super Controllers and Crime Prevention:
A Routine Activity Explanation of Crime Prevention Success and Failure.
Security Journal (forthcoming).
Scott, M. S. (2005). Policing for Prevention: Shifting and Sharing the Responsibility to
Address Public Safety Problems. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Crime Prevention Handbook.
Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Walters, R. (1996). The 'Dream' of Multi-Agency Crime Prevention: Pitfalls in Policy
and Practice. In R. Homel (Ed.), The Politics and Practice of Situational Crime
Prevention (Vol. 5, pp. 75-96). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
FACILITATING ENVIRONMENTS
How do streets and street patterns influence crimes at places? How do streets layouts
influence crime in neighborhoods? What can be done to reduce crime created by streets
patterns? Do these interventions work? What is the role in crime of transport systems in
general? Note: you will need to draw on readings listed under Theory, above, as well as
these readings.
Atlas, R., and W. LeBlanc (1994). “The Impact on Crime of Street Closures and
Barricades: A Florida Case Study.” Security Journal 5(3):140–145.
Beavon, D., P. Brantingham, and P. Brantingham (1994). “The Influence of Street
Networks on the Patterning of Property Offenses.” In R. Clarke (ed.), Crime
Prevention Studies, Vol. 2. Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.
16
Eck, John E. (1995) A General Model of the Geography of Illicit Retail Market Places. In
John E. Eck & David Weisburd, eds. Crime and Place. Crime Prevention Studies.
Vol 4. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press. pp 67-94.
Homel, Ross & Jeff Clark (1994) The Prediction and Prevention of Violence in Pubs and
Clubs. In Ronald V. Clarke, ed. Crime Prevention Studies vol. 3, Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press. Pp 1-46.
Lasley, J. (1998). “Designing Out” Gang Homicides and Street Assaults. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Justice.
La Vigne, N. G. (1996). Safe Transport: Security by Design on the Washington Metro.
In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Preventing Mass Transit Crime (Vol. 6, pp. 163-198).
Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Macintyer, Stuart and Ross Homel. 1997. "Danger on the Dance Floor: A Study of
Interior Design, Crowding and Aggression in Nightclubs." Pp. 91-114 in Policing
for Prevention: Reducing Crime, Public Intoxication and Injury, vol. 7, Crime
Prevention Studies, edited by R. Homel. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Wagner, A. (1997). “A Study of Traffic Pattern Modifications in an Urban Crime
Prevention Program.” Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(1):19–30.
White, G. F. (1990) Neighborhood Permeability and Burglary Rates. Justice Quarterly.
7(1) 57-67.
Zavoski, R., G. Lapidus, T. Lerer, G. Burke, and L. Banco (1999). “Evaluating the
Impact of a Street Barrier on Urban Crime.” Injury Prevention 5(1):65–68.
ADAPTATION: DISPLACEMENT, DIFFUSION AND ANTICIPATION
Why are the results of evaluations that address displacement so important to rational
choice perspectives? How are the concepts of displacement, diffusion and anticipation
handled by traditional criminological theories? What is the significance of the gas
suicide study results? Why are scripts important? What is the implication of scripts for
displacement and diffusion? What are the implications of near repeats for displacement
and diffusion? How are scripts and near repeats linked?
Ayres, I., & Levitt, S. D. (1998). Measuring Positive Externalities from Unobservable
Victim Precaution: An Empirical Analysis of Lojack. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 113(1), 43-77.
Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1990). Crime Placement, Displacement and Deflection. In M.
Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (Vol. 12, pp.
277-318). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
17
Bouloukos, A. C., & Farrell, G. (1997). On Displacement and Repeat Victimization. In
G. Newman, R. V. Clarke & S. G. Shohan (Eds.), Rational Choice and
Situational Crime Prevention (pp. 219-232). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Bowers, K. and Johnson, S. (2003). "Measuring the Geographical Displacement and
Diffusion of Benefit Effects of Crime Prevention Activity," Journal of
Quantitative Criminology 193: 275-301.
Brantingham, Paul J. and Patricia L. Brantingham. 2003. "Anticipating the Displacement
of Crime Using the Principles of Environmental Criminology." Pp. 119-148 in
Theory for Practice in Situational Crime Prevention, vol. 16, Crime Prevention
Studies, edited by M. J. Smith and D. B. Cornish. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice
Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Mayhew, P. (1988). The British Gas Suicide Story and Its
Criminological Implications. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and Justice:
A Review of Research (Vol. 10). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Weisburd, D. (1994). Diffusion of Crime Control Benefits: Observations
on the Reverse of Displacement. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies
(Vol. 2, pp. 165-184). Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.
Cornish, D. B. (1994). The Procedural Analysis of Offending and Its Relevance for
Situational Prevention. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies (Vol. 3,
pp. 151-196). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (1987). Understanding Crime Displacement: An
Application of Rational Choice Theory. Criminology, 25(4), 933-947.
Eck, J. E. (1993). The Threat of Crime Displacement. Criminal Justice Abstracts, 25(3),
527-546.
Ekblom, P. (1999). Can We Make Crime Prevention Adaptive by Learning from Other
Evolutionary Struggles? Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 8(1), 27-51.
Guerette, R.T. and Bowers, K. J. (2009), "Assessing the Extent of Crime Displacement
and Diffusion of Benefits: A Review of Situational Crime Prevention
Evaluations", Criminology, 47(4).
Hamilton-Smith, N. (2002). Anticipated Consequences: Developing a Strategy for the
Targeted Measurement of Displacement and Diffusion of Benefits. In N. Tilley
(Ed.), Evaluation for Crime Prevention (Vol. 14, pp. 11-52). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Hesseling, R. B. P. (1994). Displacement: A Review of the Empirical Literature. In R. V.
Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies (Vol. 3, pp. 197-230). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
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Reppetto, T. A. (1976). Crime Prevention and the Displacement Phenomena. Crime and
Delinquency(April), 166-177.
Pease, K. (1999). A Review of Street Lighting Evaluations: Crime Reduction Effects. In
K. Painter & N. Tilley (Eds.), Civil Remedies and Crime Prevention (Vol. 10, pp.
47-76). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Smith, M. J., Clarke, R. V., & Pease, K. (2002). Anticipatory Benefits of Crime
Prevention. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Analysis for Crime Prevention (Vol. 13, pp. 71-88).
Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Weisburd, D., & Green, L. (1995). Measuring the Immediate Spatial Displacement:
Methodological Issues and Problems. In J. E. Eck & D. Weisburd (Eds.), Crime
and Place (Vol. volume 4, pp. 349-361). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Weisburd, D. et al (2006) Does Crime Just Move Around the Corner?: A Controlled
Study of Displacement and Diffusion in Two Crime Hot Spots. Criminology.
44(3): 549-592.
See also, Guerrette, displacement tool guide at www.popcenter.org
EVALUATION
What is realism in evaluation? Why is mechanism so important? What is context
sensitivity and how does it influence generalizability? Why do we need to take special
care when displacement, diffusion, or anticipation is likely? How do we take special care
in these circumstances? What are cost-benefit studies? How effective is opportunity
blocking (be sure to have examples)?
Bennett, T. (1996). What's New in Evaluation Research? A Note on the Pawson and
Tilley Article. British Journal of Criminology, 36(4), 567-573.
Braga, Anthony A. (2001) The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime. The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science. 578: 104-125.
Eck, John E. (1998) Preventing Crime by Controlling Drug Dealing on Private Rental
Property. Security Journal. 11(4)
Eck, John E. (2002) Preventing Crime at Places. In, Lawrence W. Sherman, David
Farrington, Brandon Welsh, & Doris Layton MacKenzie eds. Evidence-Based
Crime Prevention. New York: Routledge. Pp. 241-294.
Eck, J. E. (2002). Learning From Experience in Problem-Oriented Policing and
Situational Prevention: The Positive Functions of Weak Evaluations and the
Negative Functions of Strong Ones. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Evaluation in Crime
Prevention (Vol. 14, pp. 93-118). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
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Eck, J. E. (2005). Evaluation for Lesson Learning. In N. Tilley (Ed.), Handbook of Crime
Prevention and Community Safety (pp. 699-733). Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
Matthews, Roger (1993) Kerb-Crawling, Prostitution and Multi-Agency Policing. Police
Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 43. London, Home Office.
Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1994). What Works in Evaluation Research? British Journal of
Criminology, 34(2), 291-306.
Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (2000). Realistic Evaluation. New York: Sage.
Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1996). What's Crucial in Evaluation Research? A Reply to
Bennett. British Journal of Criminology, 36(4), 574-290.
Roman, J., & Farrell, G. (2002). Cost-Benefit Analysis and Crime Prevention. In N.
Tilley (Ed.), Evaluation for Crime Prevention (Vol. 14, pp. 53-92). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2001). Assessing the Economic Costs and Benefits of
Crime Prevention. In B. C. Welsh, D. P. Farrington & L. W. Sherman (Eds.),
Costs and Benefits of Preventing Crime (pp. 3-22). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Welsh, B., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Surveillance for Crime Prevention in Public
Space: Results and Policy Choices in Britain and America. Criminology and
Public Policy, 3(3), 497-526.
RESOURCES THAT CAN HELP STUDYING
Center for Problem-Oriented Policing http://www.popcenter.org/
Problem Analysis Module
Problem Analysis Triangle
25 Techniques for Crime Prevention
Problem Specific Guides
Problem Response Guides
Problem Solving Tools Guides
SARA Process
Case studies
(There is a volume of material at this site, including PDF copies of many articles on this
list.)
20
Section 3: THEORIES OF AND RESEARCH ON VICTIMIZATION AND
FEAR OF CRIME
The readings in this section provide you with an overview of victimization and fear of
crime. Understanding the theories of victimization and fear, the determinants of personal
and property victimization and fear of victimization, and their respective models is
imperative to successfully preventing victimization and fear.
I. Patterns of Victimization
The two major sources of crime/victimization rates in the United States is the NCVS and
UCR. There are several differences between the NCVS and URC, including different
methods of defining and operationalizing respective types of crime. The NCVS and UCR
have methodological strengths and weaknesses that you should understand in terms of the
implications for validity and reliability in measurement. The divergence and
convergence of crime rates from the NCVS and UCR has been (and continues to be) the
source of many methodological discussions among scholars and policy makers.
1. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS): See
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pubalp2.htm for most recent NCVS crime stats.
Focus on the characteristics of the victims and incidents of any victimization
publication you find interesting. The most widely used publication would be
Criminal Victimization in the United States for any year or time series.
Also, see the recent supplement to the NCVS such as the Stalking and Harassment
report. Also see their website for additional recent reports using NCVS data.
2. Uniform Crime Report
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Report, for any given year or time series
focus on the patterns. For example,
http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_02/pdf/1sectionone.pdf and
http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_02/pdf/2sectiontwo.pdf
YOU need to skim over SECTION 2—it is 212 pages.
Look for trends and patterns from the most recent publication.
Biderman, A.D. and Lynch, J.P. (1991). Understanding crime incidence statistics: Why
the UCR diverges from the NCS. New York : Springer-Verlag.
See also Section III. Measurement of Victimization below.
21
II. Theories of Victimization
Explaining who, when, how and why people or property are at risk of being victimized
area the main focal points of the victimology field. Below is a list of readings that is the
foundation of theoretical beginnings of the study of victims. You should begin to
understand and appreciate the evolution of the theoretical development of the study of
victimization.
Lifestyle-Exposure Theory
Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M.R., and Garofalo, J. (1978). “Toward a Theory of
Personal Criminal Victimization.” In Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M.R., and
Garofalo, J., Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation For a Theory
of Personal Victimization. Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger Publishing Company.
Gottfredson, M.R. (1981). “On the etiology of criminal victimization.” Journal of
Criminal Law and Criminology. 72:714-726.
Routine Activities Theory
Cohen, L.E. and M. Felson. (1979). Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine
Activities Approach.” American Sociological Review. 44:88-100
Cohen, L.E., M. Felson and K.C. Land. (1980). "Property Crime Rates in the United
States: A Macrodynamic Analysis, 1947-1977; with ex ante forecasts for the Mid1980s." American Journal of Sociology 86:98-118
Gottfredson, M.R. (1981). “On the etiology of criminal victimization.” Journal of
Criminal Law and Criminology. 72:714-726.
Victimization and Opportunity
Cohen, L.E., Kluegel, J.R., and Land, K.C. (1981). “Social Inequality and Predatory
Criminal Victimization: An Exposition and Test of a Formal Theory.” American
Sociological Review 46:505-524.
Miethe T.D. and Meier R.F. (1994). Crime and Its Social Context: Toward an
Integrated Theory of Offenders, Victims, and Situations. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
“New” Contemporary Theories of Victimization?
Age-Graded
Finkelhor, D. and Asdigian, N.L. (1996). “Risk Factors for Youth Victimization: Beyond
a Lifestyle/Routine Activities Theory Approach.” Violence and Victims. 11(1):
3-19.
22
Finkelhor, D. and Asdigian, N.L. (1996). “Risk Factors for Youth Victimization: Beyond
a Lifestyle/Routine Activities Theory Approach.” Violence and Victims. Volume
11(1): 3-19.
Henson, B., Wilcox, P., Reyns, B.W., & Cullen, F.T. (2010). Gender, adolescent
lifestyles, and violent victimization: Implications for Routine Activity Theory.
Victims & Offenders, 5, 303-328.
Gendered Routine Activities
Wilcox, P., Tillyer, M.S., & Fisher, B.S. (2009). Gendered opportunity? School-based
adolescent victimization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 46,
245-269.
Popp, A.M., Peguero, A.A. (2011). Routine activities and victimization at school: The
significance of gender. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2413-2436.
Feminist Routine Activities
Schwartz, M.D., & Pitts, V.L. (1995). Exploring a feminist routine activities approach to
explaining sexual assault. Justice Quarterly, 12, 9-31.
Mustaine, E.E. and Tewksbury, R. (2002). “Sexual Assault of College Women: A
Feminist Interpretation of RA Analysis.” Criminal Justice Review. 27(1): 89123.
Application of a Criminological Theory to Explain Victimization
A General Theory of Crime
Schreck, C. (1999). “Criminal Victimization and Low Self-Control: An Extension and
Test of A General Theory of Crime.” Justice Quarterly, 16(3): 633-654.
Schreck, C.J., Wright, R.A., Miller, J.M. (2002). “A study of individual and situational
antecedents of violent victimization”. Justice Quarterly, 19, 159-180.
Schreck, Christopher J. and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2004). “Specifying the Influence of
Family and Peers on Violent Victimization: Extending Routine Activities and
Lifestyle Theories.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 19(9), 1 - 20.
Schreck, Chris, Eric Stewart, and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2006). “Self-Control, Victimization,
and their Influence on Delinquency and Delinquent Friends: A Longitudinal
Analysis Using Panel Data.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22(4), 319 340.
23
Franklin, C.A., et al. (2012). “Assessing the Effects of Routine Activities and SelfControl on Property, Personal, and Sexual Victimization.” Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 39: 1296-1315.
Alternative Theories of Victimization
Felson, R. (2002). Violence and Gender Reexamined. Washington D.C: American
Psychological Association.
Overview article
Meier, R.F., and Miethe, T.D. (1993). “Understanding Theories of Criminal
Victimization..” In Michael Tonry (editor), Crime and Justice: A Review of
Research, volume 17. Chgo: University of Chicago Press.
III. Measurement of Victimization
Measuring the extent of victimization is a daunting challenge. Since its inception, the
measurement of victimization has sparked much discussion, especially issues surrounding
the two leading criteria of validity and reliability. This discussion has led to
advancements in the measurement of victimization including a new system of measuring
official crime rates, the FBI’s National Incident-based Reporting System, and a redesign
of the National Crime Survey in 1992. This has also lead to some new measures,
especially psychological abuse and intimate partner violence, that are being used by the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. These new measures can be found in CDCs,
NIJ’s and DOD’s newly administered National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence
Surveillance System (scheduled to go into the field January 2010).
Of noteworthy interest are the discussions surrounding measurement of rape
victimization. Despite some methodological advances in the measurement of rape (and
other forms of sexual victimization), measurement issues still remain at the forefront of
the sexual victimization research.
National Sources of Victim Data in the United States and Their Differences
Biderman, A. (1981) “Sources of Data for Victimology.” Journal of Criminal Law
and Criminology 72:789-817.
Garofalo, James, and Michael Hindelang. (1977). An Introduction to the National
Crime Survey. US Department of Justice: LEAA.
Sparks, Richard, Hazel Genn and David Dodd. (1977). Surveying Victims.
London: Wiley.
Lehnen, Robert, G. and Skogan, Wesley G. (1981). The National Crime Survey:
Working Papers, Volume I: Current and Historical Perspectives. US
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
24
Lehnen, Robert, G. and Skogan, Wesley G. (1984). The National Crime Survey:
Working Papers, Volume II: Methodological Studies. US Department of Justice,
Bureau of Justice Statistics.
U.S. Department of Justice. (1989). Redesign of the National Crime Survey. US
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Biderman, A.D. and Lynch, J.P. (1991). Understanding crime incidence statistics: Why
the UCR diverges from the NCS. New York : Springer-Verlag.
Maltz, Micheal and Zawitz, Marianne. (1998). “Displaying Violent Crime Trends Using
Estimates from the NCVS.” US Department of Justice: Office of Justice
Programs.
Chilton, R. (1998). “Victims and Offenders: A New UCR Supplement to the Present
Incident-Based Data from Participating Agencies.”
http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/nibrs/nibrss.pdf
Lauristen, J.L. (2005). “Social and Scientific Influences on the Measurement of Criminal
Victimization.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 21(3): 245-265.
Lynch, James, P., and Lynn Addington. (2006). Understanding Crime Statistics:
Revisiting the Divergence of the NCVS and UCR. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Validity Issues in Victim Surveys
Cohen, L.E. and Land, K.C. (1984). “Discrepancies between Crime Reports and Crime
Surveys.” Criminology 22:499-530.
Koss, Mary P. (1992). “The Underdetection of Rape: Methodological Choices
Influence Incidence Estimates.” Journal of Social Issues. 48:61-75.
Koss, Mary P. (1993). “Detecting the Scope of Rape: A Review of Prevalence Research
Methods.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 8:198-222.
Bachman, R., & Saltzman, L. E. (1995). National Crime and Victimization Survey.
Violence Against Women Survey: Estimates from the redesigned survey.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Koss, Mary P. (1996). “The Measurement of Rape Victimization in Crime Surveys.”
Criminal Justice and Behavior. 23:550-569.
Percy, A., & Mayhew, P. (1997). Estimating sexual victimization in a national crime
survey: A new approach. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 6(2), 125-150.
25
Cantor, D., and Lynch, J.P. (2000). “Self-Report Surveys as Measures of Crime and
Criminal Victimization.” CJ2000 Volume 4.
http://www.ncjrs.org/criminal_justice2000/vol_4/04c.pdf
Fisher, B.S., and Cullen, F.T. (2000). “Measuring the Sexual Victimization of Women:
Evolution, Current Controversies, and Future Research.” CJ2000, Volume 4.
https://www.ncjrs.gov/criminal_justice2000/vol_4/04g.pdf
Tourangeau, T.,and McNeeley, M. (2000) . “Measuring Crime and Victimization:
Methodological Issues” unpublished manuscript Survey Research Center,
University of Michigan.
(2002). In Pepper and Petrie (editors). Measurement Problems in Criminal
Justice Research: Workshop Summary. Washington D.C.: The National
Academies Press (www.nap.edu).
Basile, K. C., & Saltzman, L. E. (2002). Sexual violence surveillance: Uniform
definitions and recommended data elements. Atlanta, GA: National Center for
Injury Prevention and Control. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Kilpatrick, D. G. (2004). What is violence against women? Defining and measuring the
problem. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(11), 1209-1234.
Koss, M. P., Abbey, A., Campbell, R., Cook, S., Norris, J., Testa, M., et al. (2007).
Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual
aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 357-370.
Jaquier, V., Fisher, B. S., & Killias, M. (2006). Cross-national survey designs: Equating
the National Violence Against Women Survey and the Swiss International
Violence Against Women Survey. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice,
22(2), 90-112.
Fisher, B. S. (2009). The effects of survey question wording on rape estimates: Evidence
from a quasi-experimental design. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 133-147.
Jaquier, V., & Fisher, B. S. (2010). Establishing the content validity of threats, physical
violence and rape against women across two national surveys. International
Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 33(2).
Fisher, B.S., Daigle, L.E. and Cullen, F.T. (2010). Unsafe in the Ivory Tower: The
Sexual Victimization of College Women. Chapters 1 and 2.
Jaquier, Véronique, Holly Johnson, and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2011). “Research Methods,
Measures, and Ethics.” In Claire M. Renzetti, Jeffery L. Eddleson, and Raquel
Kenedy Bergen (eds). Sourcebook of Violence Against Women, 2nd Edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers.
26
Bachman, R. (2012). “Measuring Rape and Sexual Assault: Successive Approximations
to Consensus.’ Paper written for The National Academy of Sciences’ panel on
the Measurement of Rape and Sexual Assault, December 2012.
Rasinski, K. (2012). “Design and implementation strategies used to collect information
on rape and sexual assault: A review of the literature with recommendations for
the NCVS.” Paper written for The National Academy of Sciences’ panel on the
Measurement of Rape and Sexual Assault, December 2012.
Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, National Intimate Partner and Sexual
Violence Survey (NISVS)
http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/nisvs/
(Focus on questions reported in Appendix of full report)
IV. Tests of Lifestyle-Exposure/ Routine Activity Theory
A large (and growing) body of empirical research testing lifestyle-exposure/routine
activity theories has accumulated since the late 1980s. As you will notice, researchers
have been quite creative and very rigorous in their hypothesis testing. Across the studies,
researchers have operationalzed key lifestyle-exposure/routine activity concepts
differently, used samples ranging from a single site to the national- and internationallevel, and employed a range of statistical techniques to estimate multivariate and multilevel models. All of this have been done in their pursuit to understand, explain, and
predict property and violent victimization, and recently, stalking and cyberstalking.
Measurement Issues
Miethe, T.D., and Meier, R.F. (1994). Crime and Its Social Context. Selected pages:
pages 52- 56 and (1993) section V.
Spano, R. and Freilich, J.D. (2009). “An assessment of the empirical validity and
conceptualization of individual level multivariate studies of lifestyle/routine
activities theory published from 1995 to 2005.” Journal of Criminal Justice,
37(3), 305
Madero-Hernandez, A., and Fisher, B. (2012). “Routine Activities Theory.” in Oxford
Handbook of Criminological Theory, Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox
(Eds.). Oxford University Press. Pp. 513-534.
Property Victimization
Massey, J.L., Krohn M. D. and Bonati, L.M. (1989). “Property Crime and the Routine
Activities of Individual.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency.
Volume 26, Number 4: 378-400.
Kennedy, L.W. and Forde, D.R. (1990) ARoutine Activities and Crime: An Analysis of
Victimization in Canada.@ Criminology. Volume 28, Number 1: 137-152.
27
Lynch, J.P. and Cantor, D. (1992). AEcological and Behavioral Influences on Property
Victimization at Home: Implications for Opportunity Theory.@ Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency. Volume 29, Number 3: 335-362.
Rountree, P.W. and K.C. Land. (1996). "Burglary Victimization, Perceptions of Crime
Risk, and Routine Activities: A Multilevel Analysis Across Seattle
Neighborhoods and Census Tracts." Journal of Research In Crime And
Delinquency, 33:147-180.
Thompson, C.Y. and Fisher, B. (1996). “Predicting Household Victimization Utilizing a
Multi-Level Routine Activity Approach.: Journal of Crime and Justice. Volume
XIX, Number 2: 49-81.
Fisher, B.S., Sloan J.J., Cullen, F.T., and Lu, C. (1998). ACrime in the Ivory Tower:
Level and Sources of Student Victimization.@ Criminology. 36(2): 671-710.
Mustaine, E.E. and Tewskbury, R. (1998). “Predicting Risks of Larceny Theft
Victimization: A Routine Activity Analysis Using Refined Lifestyles Measures.”
Criminology. 36(4): 829-858.
Tseloni, A. and Farrell, G. (2002). “Burglary Victimization Across Europe: The Role of
Prior Victimization, Micro, and Macro-level Routine Activities.” In P.
Nievwbeerta (editor), Crime Victimization in Comparative Perspective: Results
from the International Crime Victim Survey 1989-2000. NSCR.
Tseloni, Andromachi, Karin Wittebrood, Graham Farrell, and Ken Pease. (2004).
“Burglary Victimization in England and Wales, The US, and the Netherlands.”
British Journal of Criminology. 44, 66- 91.
Violent Victimization
Sampson, R.J. and Wooldredge, J.D. (1987). ALinking the Micro and Marco Level of
Dimensions of Lifestyle-Routine Activity and Opportunity Models of Predatory
Victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology. Volume 3, Number 4: 371393.
Sampson, R.J. (1987). APersonal Violence by Stranger: An Extension and Test of the
Opportunity Model.@ The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Volume
78, Number 2: 327-356.
Sampson, R.J. and Lauritsen, J.L. (1990). >Deviant Lifestyles, Proximity to Crime, and
the Offender-Victim Link.@ Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency.
Volume 27, Number2: 110-139.
28
Kennedy, L.W. and Forde, D.R. ARoutine Activities and Crime: An Analysis of
Victimization in Canada.@ (DATE) Criminology. Volume 28, Number 1: 137152.
Mustaine, E.E. and Tewskbury, R. (1998). APredicting Risks of Larceny Theft
Victimization: A Routine Activity Analysis Using Refined Lifestyles Measures.@
Criminology. 36(4): 829-858.
Fisher, B.S., Sloan J.J., Cullen, F.T., and Lu, C. (1998). ACrime in the Ivory
Tower: Level and Sources of Student Victimization.@ Criminology. 36(2):
671-710.
Tseloni, A. (2000). “Personal Criminal Victimization in the US: Fixed and Random
Effects of Individual and Household Characteristics.” Journal of Quantitative
Criminology. 16(4): 415 – 442.
Mustaine, E.E. and Tewksbury, R. (2002). “Sexual Assault of College Women: A
Feminist Interpretation of RA Analysis.” Criminal Justice Review. 27(1): 89123.
Cass, A.I. (2007). “RA and Sexual Assault: An Analysis of Individual- and
School-level Factors.” Violence and Victims, 22(3): 350-366.
Stalking
Tjaden P., and Thoennes, N. (1998). AStalking in America: Findings From the National
Violence Against Women Survey.@ U.S. Department of Justice: Bureau of
Justice Statistics. http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/169592.pdf
Mustaine, E.E. and Tewksbury, R. (1999). “A Routine Activity Theory Explanation for
Women=s Stalking Victimizations. Violence Against Women. Volume 5,
Number 1: 43-62.
Fisher, Bonnie S., Cullen, F.T., and Turner, M.G. (2002). ABeing Pursued: A Nationallevel Study of Stalking Among College Women.@ Criminology and Public
Policy.
Davis, K. and Hanson, I. (2002). “Research on Stalking: What Do We Know and Where
Do We Go?” in Davis, K., I. Hanson, and R. Maiuro, (editors). Stalking :
perspectives on victims and perpetrators. New York: Springer Pub.
Fisher, Bonnie S. and Megan Stewart. (2007). “Vulnerabilities and Opportunities 101:
The Extent, Nature, and Impact of Stalking Among College Students and
Implications for Campus Policy and Programs.” in Bonnie S. Fisher and John J.
29
Sloan, III. (eds.), Campus Crime: Legal, Social and Policy Issues, Second
Edition. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, Illinois. Pp. 210 - 230.
Fisher, B.S., Daigle, L.E. and Cullen, F.T. (2010). Unsafe in the Ivory Tower: The
Sexual Victimization of College Women. Chapter 7.
Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, National Intimate Partner and Sexual
Violence Survey (NISVS)
http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/NISVS_Report2010-a.pdf
(Focus on STALKING)
Baum, K., Catalano, S. and Rand, M. (2009). Stalking Victimization in the US. U.S.
Department of Justice: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/svus.pdf
Nobles, Matt R., Bradford W. Reyns, Kathleen A. Fox, and Bonnie S. Fisher.
“Protection Against Pursuit: Similarities and Differences from a National Sample
of Stalking and Cyberstalking Victims.” Justice Quarterly.
Cyber Victimization
Reyns, Bradford, W., Billy Henson, and Bonnie S. Fisher (2011). “Being Pursued
Online: Applying Cyberlifestyle-Routine Activities Theory to Cyberstalking
Victimization.” Criminal Justice Behavior. 38, 1149-1169.
Reyns, Bradford, W., Henson, Billy, and Bonnie S. Fisher. “(2012). Stalking in the
Twilight Zone: Extent of Cyberstalking Victimization and Offending Among
College Students.” Deviant Behavior, 33, 1-25.
Reyns, Bradford, W., Melissa W. Burek, Billy Henson, and Bonnie S. Fisher. (in press)
“The Unintended Consequences of Cyber Technology: Exploring the Relationship
Between Sexting and Victimization.” Journal of Crime and Justice.
Nobles, Matt R., Bradford W. Reyns, Kathleen A. Fox, and Bonnie S. Fisher. (in press)
“Protection Against Pursuit: Similarities and Differences from a National Sample
of Stalking and Cyberstalking Victims.” Justice Quarterly
V. Repeat victimization
One thing leads to another. Not always. Sometimes one thing leads to the same thing.
Ask an addict.
--George Carlin, on expressions he question, 1997, p. 130
30
Interest in repeat victimization in the United States was born out of the development and
analysis of the National Crime Survey as a methodological issue in need of attention.
Much of this early repeat victimization work was not put to use until the early 1990s
when British crime prevention researchers renewed the interest by linking repeat
victimization to crime prevention. Guided by the victimization research noted in the
previous section, much of the current repeat victimization research has focused on
explaining the extent and nature of repeat victimization using the lifestyleexposure/routine activity theories framework.
Measurement and Theoretical Issues
Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M.R., and Garofalo, J. (1978). “Multiple Victimization.”
In Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M.R., and Garofalo, J., Victims of Personal
Crime: An Empirical Foundation For a Theory of Personal Victimization.
Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger Publishing Company.
Fienberg, Stephen E. (1980). “Statistical modeling in the analysis of repeat
victimization”. In Indicators of Crime and Criminal Justice: Quantitative
Studies, edited by Fienberg, Stephen E., Albert J. Reiss and Social Science
Research Council, 54-58. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Reiss, Albert. (1980). “Victim proneness in repeat victimization by type of crime.” In
Indicators of Crime and Criminal Justice: Quantitative Studies, edited by
Fienberg, Stephen E., Albert J. Reiss and Social Science Research Council, 54-58.
Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Sparks, Richard. (1981). “Multiple Victimization: Evidence, Theory, and Future
Research.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 72(2): 762-778.
Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B. S., & Guthrie, P. (2007). The reoccurrence of victimization:
What researchers know about its terminology, characteristics, causes, and
prevention. In R. C. Davis, A. J. Lurigo & W. G. Skogan (Eds.), Victims of crime
(3rd ed., pp. 211-232). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Explanations for Repeat Victimization and Tests of Theories
Polvi, Natale, Looman, Terah, Humphries, Charles, and Pease, Ken. (1991). “The Time
Course of Repeat Victimization.” British Journal of Criminology. 31(4): 411414.
Farrell, G., and Pease, K. (1993). AOnce Bitten, Twice Bitten: Repeat Victimisation
and Its Implication for Crime Prevention.@
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/prgpubs/fcpu46.pdf
Hope, T. (1995). “Symposium on Repeat Victimization: The Flux of Victimization.”
British Journal of Criminology 35 (3): 327-342.
31
Spelman, William (1995). “Once bitten: then what? Cross-sectional and time-course
explanations of repeat victimization.” British Journal of Criminology 35 (3) 366383.
Farrell, G., C. Phillips and K. Pease. (1995)."Like Taking Candy: Why does repeat
victimization occur?," British Journal of Criminology, 35(3): 384-399.
Osborn, Denise R., Dan Ellingworth, Tim Hope and Alan Trickett. (1996). “Are
repeatedly victimized households different?” Journal of Quantitative
Criminology, 12, 2, 23-245.
Osborn, Denise, and Andromachi Tseloni. (1998). “The distribution of household
property crimes”. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14, 3, 307-330.
Wittebrood K. and P. Nieuwbeerta. (2000). “Criminal Victimization During One’s Life
Course: The Effects of Previous Victimization and Patterns of Routine
Activities.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 37(1): 91-122.
Hope, Tim, Jane Bryan, Alan Trickett, and Denise Osborn. (2001). “The Phenomena of
Multiple Victimization.” British Journal of Criminology. 41: 595-617.
Sagovsky, A., and Johnson, S.D. (2007). “When Does Repeat Burglary Victimization
Occur?”Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 40(1): 1-26.
Sabina, C., & Straus, M. A. (2008). “Polyvictimization by dating partners and mental
health among U.S. college students.” Violence and Victims, 23(6), 667-682.
Daigle, Leah E., Bonnie S. Fisher, and Francis T. Cullen. (2008). “The Violent and
Sexual Victimization of College Women: Is Repeat Victimization a Problem?”
Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 23(9), 1296 - 1313.
Johnson, Shane D. (2008). “Repeat burglary victimisation: a tale of two theories.”
Journal of Experimental Criminology, 4(3): 215-240.
Fisher, B.S., Daigle, L.E. and Cullen, F.T. (2010). Unsafe in the Ivory Tower: The
Sexual Victimization of College Women. Chapter 5.
Fisher, B., S., Daigle, L.E., and Cullen, F.T. (2010). “What Distinguishes Single Sexual
Victims From Recurring Ones?: The Role of Lifestyle-Routine Activities and
First-Incident Characteristics.” Justice Quarterly, 21, 1: 102-129.
Turanovic, J. J. and Pratt, T.C. (2012). “Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop’: Self-Control, Risky
Lifestyles and Repeat Victimization.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology.
Published Online, 8 November 2012.
32
VI. Fear of Crime
The definition and subsequent measurement of fear of crime and its study both as a
dependent variable and independent variable has generated much research over the last
three decades. A core of fear of crime researchers, including Ferraro, Fisher, LaGrange,
Skogan, Warr, and Wilcox, have furthered our understanding of the relationship between
fear of crime (and in particular different types of crime) and demographic characteristics
(especially age and sex), victimization experiences, vicarious victimization experiences,
crime prevention behavior, and social and environmental setting characteristics.
Measurement of Fear
Warr, M. and Stafford, M. (1983). “Fear of Victimization: A Look at the Proximate
Causes.” Social Forces 61:1033-1043.
Warr, M. 1987. “Fear of Victimization and Sensitivity to Risk.” Journal of
Quantitative Criminology 3:29-46.
Ferrari, K. F. and LaGrange, R.L. (1987). “The Measurement of Fear of Crime.”
Sociological Inquiry 57:70-101.
Wilcox, P. R. and Land, K.C. (1996). “Perceived risk versus fear of crime: empirical
evidence of conceptually distinct reactions in survey data”
Social Forces, 74(4): 1353-1376.
Crime-Fear Link
Skogan, W.G.., and Maxfield, M.G. (1981). Coping with Crime. Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage.
Rountree, P.W. (1998). “A reexamination of the crime-fear linkage.”
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 35(3): 341-372.
Fear of Crime and The Shadow of Rape
Warr, M. (1984). “Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more fearful?
“Social Science Quarterly, 65, 681-702.
Warr, M (1985). “Fear of Rape Among Urban Women.” Social Problems 32:238250.
Gordon, M.T. and Riger, S. (1989). The Female Fear. New York: Free Press.
LaGrange, Randy L. and Kenneth F. Ferraro. (1989). AAssessing Age and Gender
Differences in Perceived Risk and Fear of Crime.@ Criminology 27:697-719.
33
Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women=s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? Social
Forces, 75, 667-690.
Lane, J.M. and James, W. (2003). “Women’s and men’s fear of gang crimes: Sexual and
nonsexual assault as perceptually contemporaneous offenses.” Justice Quarterly,
20(2): 337-371.
Fisher, B.S. and Sloan, J.J. (2003). “Unraveling College Women’s Fear of
Crime: A Test of Ferraro’s Shadow Hypothesis.” Justice Quarterly. 20(3):
301– 327.
Environmental Design, Disorder, and Fear of Crime
LaGrange, Randy L., Kenneth F. Ferraro, and Michael Supancic. (1992). APerceived
Risk and Fear of Crime: Role of Social and Physical Incivilities.@ Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency29:311-334.
Fisher, B.S. and Nasar, J.L. (1992). “Fear of Crime in Relation to Three Exterior Site
Features: Prospect, Refuge, and Escape.” Environment and Behavior. 24(1): 35
- 65.
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1995). Fear spots in relation to microlevel physical clues:
Exploring the overlooked. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 32,
214-39.
Merry, S. E. (1981). “Defensible Space Undefended: Social Factors in Crime Control
through Environmental Design.” Urban Affairs Quarterly 16:397-422.
Skogan, W. (1990). Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American
Communities. New York: Free Press.
Taylor, R. B. (2001). Breaking Away from Broken Windows: Baltimore Neighborhoods
and the Nationwide Fight Against Crime, Grime, Fear and Decline. Boulder,
CO: Westview.
Wilcox, P.W., Quisenberry, N. and Jones, S. (2003). “The built environment and
community crime risk interpretation.” Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency 40:1-23.
Barberet, Rosemary and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2009). “Can Security Beget Insecurity?:
Security and Crime Prevention Awareness and Fear of Burglary
Among University Students in the East Midlands.” Security Journal. 22(1), 3 - 23.
Fisher, Bonnie, S., and David C. May. (2009). “College Students’ Crime-related Fears
On Campus: Are Fear-Provoking Cues Gendered?” Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice. 25(3), 300-321.
34
Overview of Fear of Crime
Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk. Albany, NY: SUNY
Press.
Warr, M. (2000). Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy. In
D. Duffee (Ed.) Measurement and analysis of crime: Criminal justice 2000 (Vol.
4) (pp. 451-489). Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office
of Justice Programs.
Explaining Fear of Crime
Lane, Jodi and James W. Meeker. (2003). “Women’s and Men’s Fear of Gang Crimes:
Sexual and Nonsexual Assault as Perceptually Contemporaneous Offenses.”
Justice Quarterly 20/2: 337-371.
Lane, Jodi and James W. Meeker. (2003). “Fear of Gang Crime: A Look at Three
Theoretical Models.” Law & Society Review 37/2: 425-456.
Rader, Nicole E. (2004). “The Threat of Victimization: A Theoretical
Reconceptualization of Fear of Crime.” Sociological Spectrum, 24:
689-704.
Rader, Nicole E., May, David C. and Sarah Goodrum. (2007). “An Empirical Assessment
of the “Threat of Victimization” Considering Fear of Crime, Perceived Risk,
Avoidance, and Defensive Behaviors.” Sociological Spectrum, 27: 475-505.
Barberet, Rosemary and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2009). “Can Security Beget Insecurity?:
Security and Crime Prevention Awareness and Fear of Burglary
Among University Students in the East Midlands.” Security Journal. 22(1), 3 - 23.
Lane, Jodi, Angela Gover, and Sarah Dahod. (2009). “Fear of Violent Crime among Men
and Women on Campus: The Impact of Perceived Risk and Fear of Sexual
Assault.” Violence & Victims 24/2: 172-192.
Fisher, Bonnie, S., and David C. May. (2009). “College Students’ Crime-related Fears
On Campus: Are Fear-Provoking Cues Gendered?” Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice. 25(3), 300-321.
Henson, B. and Fisher B.S. (2012). “Measuring Fear of Crime Over the Years:
Sundry Methods Muddle the Validity” Unpublished manuscript, School of
Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati.
35
Section 4: WHITE-COLLAR CRIME
Classic Statements on White-Collar Crime
Everyone who works in white-collar crime must read Sutherland’s classic book on whitecollar crime. It is important not only for its historical value, but because Sutherland
addressed and had intelligent things to say on virtually all of the issues that have become
central to the study of white-collar crime. Pay particular attention to his theory of whitecollar crime.
Ross, Edward A. 1907. Sin and Society; an Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity. Boston and
New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Ross, E. A. 1977. “The Criminaloid.” In White-Collar Crime: Offenses in Business,
Politics, and the Professions
Sutherland, Edwin H. 1983. White Collar Crime - The Uncut Version. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Analytical Treatments of the Nature of White-Collar Crime
These pieces provide some good information on the nature of white-collar crime. They
identify some of its unique and distinctive features. They also address various theoretical
debates regarding white-collar crime, in particular what to do with corporate crime.
Benson, Michael L. and Sally S. Simpson. 2009. White-Collar Crime: An Opportunity
Perspective. Chapter s1 and 4.
Braithwaite, John. 1988. "White-Collar Crime, Competition, and Capitalism: Comment
on Coleman." American Journal of Sociology 94:627-32.
------.1985. "White Collar Crime." Annual Review of Sociology 11:1-25.
Coleman, James W. 1987. "Toward an Integrated Theory of White-Collar Crime."
American Journal of Sociology 93:406-39.
Cressey, Donald R. 2001. “The Poverty of Theory in Corporate Crime Research.” Pp.
175-193 in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White-Collar Crime, edited by Neal
Shover and John Paul Wright. New York: Oxford University Press.
Croall, Hazel. 2001. Understanding White Collar Crime. Buckingham ; Phildelphia:
Open University Press.
36
Edelhertz, Herbert. 1970. The Nature, Impact and Prosecution of White-Collar Crime.
Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Justice.
Felson, Marcus. 2002. Crime and Everyday Life, chapter 7. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine
Forge Press.
Geis, Gilbert. 2000. "On the Absence of Self-Control as the Basis for a General Theory
of Crime: A Critique." Theoretical Criminology 4:35-53.
------.1988. "From Deuteronomy to Deniability: A Historical Perlustration on WhiteCollar Crime." Justice Quarterly 5 5:7-32.
Gross, Edward. 1978. "Organizational Crime: A Theoretical Perspective." Pp. 55-85 in
Studies in Symbolic Interaction, vol. 1, edited by Norman Denzin. Greenwood,
CN: JAI Press.
Hirschi, Travis and Michael Gottfredson. 1989. "The Significance of White-Collar Crime
for a General Theory of Crime." Criminology 27:359-71.
Hirschi, Travis and Michael Gottfredson. 1993. "Commentary: Testing the General
Theory of Crime." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30:47-54.
------.1987. "Causes of White-Collar Crime." Criminology 25:949-74.
Reed, Gary E. and Peter C. Yeager. 1996. "Organizational Offending and Neoclassical
Criminology: Challenging the Reach of a General Theory of Crime." Criminology
34:357-82.
Shapiro, Susan P. 1990. "Collaring the Crime, Not the Criminal: Reconsidering the
Concept of White-Collar Crime." American Sociological Review 55:346-65.
Shover, Neal, Andy Hochstetler, and Tage Alalehto. 2013. “Choosing White-Collar
Crime.” Pp. 475-493 in The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory, edited by
Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox. Oxford University Press.
Steffensmeier, Darrell J. 1989. "On the Causes of `white-Collar' Crime: An Assessment
of Hirschi and Gottfredson's Claims." Criminology 27:345-58.
Wheeler, Stanton. 1976. "Trends and Problems in the Sociological Study of Crime."
Social Problems 23:525-34.
Wheeler, Stanton and Mitchell L. Rothman. 1980. "The Organization As Weapon in
White-Collar Crime." Michigan Law Review 80(7):1403-26.
Offenders Accounts of Offenses
37
Unlike many street criminals and almost without exception white-collar offenders do not
think of themselves as criminals and they deny that they did anything wrong. This
mental trick or blind spot that they have means that the tactic of “removing excuses” may
be both particularly difficult and at the same time a potentially fruitful avenue to pursue
for crime prevention.
Benson, Michael L. 1985a. "Denying the Guilty Mind: Accounting for Involvement in a
White-Collar Crime." Criminology 23(4):583-607.
Benson, Michael L. and Sally S. Simpson. 2009. White-Collar Crime: An Opportunity
Perspective. Chapter 7.
Hochstetler, Andrew and Heith Copes. “Organizational Culture and Organizational
Crime.” Pp. 210-221 in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White-Collar Crime,
edited by Neal Shover and John Paul Wright. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Jesilow, Paul, Henry Pontell, and Gilbert Geis. 2004. “Doctors Tell Their Stories of
Medicaid Fraud” from Prescription for Profit: How Doctors Defraud Medicaid
and reprinted in About Criminals, edited by Mark Pogrebin. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Willott, Sara, Christine Griffin, and Mark Torrance. 2001. "Snakes and Ladders: UpperMiddle Class Male Offenders Talk About Economic Crime." Criminology
39(2):441-66.
Stadler, William A. and Michael L. Benson. 2012. “Revisiting the Guilty Mind: The
Neutralization of White-Collar Crime.” Criminal Justice Review 37: 494-511.
Klenowski, Paul M., Heith Copes, and Christopher W. Mullins. 2012. “Gender, Identity,
and Accounts: How White-Collar Offenders Do Gender When Making Sense of
Their Crimes.” Justice Quarterly 28: 46-69.
Recent Research on the Psychology of White-Collar Offenders
Until fairly recently, the psychology of white-collar offenders has not received a lot of
attention from researchers. The situation is changing now and there has been a small
flurry of research and speculation on this topic. It remains to be seen whether these new
studies will really expand our understanding of the causes and potential control of whitecollar crime.
Babiak, Paul, Craig S. Neumann and Robert D. Hare. 2010. “Corporate Psychopathy:
Talking the Walk.” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 28: 174-193.
Collins, Judith and Frank Schmidt. 1993. “Personality, Integrity, and White-Collar
Crime.” Personnel Psychology 46:295-311.
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Feeley, Drew. 2006. “Personality, Environment, and the Causes of White-Collar Crime.”
Law & Psychology Review. 30: 201-213.
Gao, Yu and Adrian Raine. 2010. “Successful and Unsuccessful Psychopaths: A
Neurobiological Model.” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 28: 194-210.
Levi, Michael. 2011. “Individual Differences and White-Collar Crime.” In Francis T.
Cullen and Pamela S. Wilcox, Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory.
Perri, Frank S. 2011. “White-Collar Criminals: The ‘Kinder Gentler’ Offender?” Journal
of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 8: 217-241.
Ragatz, Laurie L., William Fremouw, and Edward Baker. 2012. “The Psychological
Profile of White-Collar Offenders: Demographics, Criminal Thinking,
Psychopathic Traits, and Psychopathology.” Criminal Justice and Behavior.
Case Studies of Particular Industries or Offenses
This section includes a grab bag of case studies of industries and offenses. They should
help you understand the magnitude and seriousness of these offenses. Almost all of these
studies directly or indirectly address how the offense was committed and why it wasn’t
prevented. You can often deduce effective prevention measures from what went wrong
in these cases.
Barlow, Hugh D. 1993. "From Fiddle Factors to Networks of Collusion: Charting the
Waters of Small Business Crime." Crime, Law and Social Change 20:319-37.
Black, William K. 2005. The Best Way to Rob a Bank is to Own One. Austin, TX:
University of Texas Press.
Brodeur, Paul. 1985. Outrageous Misconduct. New York: Pantheon.
Calavita, Kitty and Henry N. Pontell. 1990. "'Heads I Win, Tails You Lose':
Deregulation, Crime, and Crisis in the Savings and Loan Industry." Crime &
Delinquency 36(3):309-41.
Calavita, K., R. Tillman and H. N. Pontell. 1997. "The Savings and Loan Debacle,
Financial Crime, and the State." Annual Review of Sociology 23:19-38.
Calavita, Kitty and Henry N. Pontell. 1991. ""Other People's Money" Revisited:
Collective Embezzlement in the Savings and Loan and Insurance Industries." Social
Problems 38:94-112.
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Cullen, Francis T., Gray Cavender, William J. Maakestad and Michael L. Benson. 2006.
Corporate Crime Under Attack: The Fight to Criminalize Business Violence.
Newark, N.J. : LexisNexis Matthew Bender,.
Coffee, John C.,Jr. 2002. "Understanding Enron : It's about the Gatekeepers, Stupid." The
Business Lawyer 57:1-2.
Calhoun, Craig and Henryk Hiller. 1988. “Coping with Insidious Injuries: The Case of
the Johns-Manville Corporation and Asbestos Exposure.” Social Problems 35:
162-181.
Cressey, Donald. 1953. Other People's Money. New York: The Free Press.
Dowie, Mark. 1987. "Pinto Madness." Pp. 13-29 in Corporate Violence, edited by Stuart
L. Hills. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield.
Farber, Stephen and Mark Green. 1988. Outrageous Conduct: Art, Ego, and the "Twilight
Zone" Case. New York : Morrow.
Fox, Loren. 2003. Enron: The Rise and Fall. New York: John Wiley.
Geis, Gilbert. 1977. "The Heavy Electrical Equipment Antitrust Cases of 1961." Pp. 11732 in White-Collar Crime. Revised ed., edited by Gilbert Geis and Robert Meier.
New York: MacMillan.
Geis, Gilbert, Paul Jesilow, Henry Pontell, and Mary J. O'Brien. 1985. "Fraud and Abuse
of Government Medical Benefit Programs by Psychiatrists." American Journal of
Psychiatry 142(2):231-34.
Green, Gary S. 1993. "White-Collar Crime and the Study of Embezzlement." The Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 525:95-106.
Hast, Robert H. 2000. "Health Care Fraud : Schemes to Defraud Medicare, Medicaid and
Private Health Care Insurers : Statement of Robert H. Hast, Associate Comptroller,
General for Special Investigations, Office of Special Investigations, before the
Subcommittee on Government Management, Information and Technology,
Committee on Government Reform, House of Representatives." GAO/T-OSI-0015:10.
Henriques, Diana B. 2011. The Wizard of Lies: Bernie Madoff and the Death of Trust.
New York: Times Books/Henry Holt.
Hollinger, Richard H. and John P. Clark. 1983. Theft by Employees. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books.
Lee, Matthew T. and M. D. Ermann. 1999. "Pinto "Madness" as a Flawed Landmark
Narrative: An Organizational and Network Analysis." Social Problems 46:30-47.
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Leonard, William N. and Marvin G. Weber. 1977. "Automakers and Dealers: A Study of
Criminogenic Market Forces." Pp. 133-48 in White-Collar Crime. Revised ed.,
edited by Gilbert Geis and Robert Meier. New York: MacMillan.
Liederbach, John. 2001. “Opportunity and Crime in the Medical Professions.” Pp. 144155 in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White-Collar Crime, edited by Neal
Shover and John Paul Wright. New York: Oxford University Press.
McLean, Bethany and Peter Elkind. 2003. The Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing
Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron. New York: Penguin Books.
Morton Mintz – Corporate Greed, Women, and the Dalkon Shield
Perez, Zathrina, Eric Cochran, and Christopher Sousa. 2008. “Securities Fraud.”
American Criminal Law Review 45: 923-994.
Pontell, Henry N. and Kitty Calavita. 1993. "White-Collar Crime in the Savings and Loan
Scandal." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
525:31-45.
Pontell, Henry, Paul D. Jesilow, and Gilbert Geis. 1984. "Practitioner Fraud and Abuse in
Medical Benefit Programs: Government Regulation and Professional WhiteCollar Crime." Law & Politics October:407-24.
Rebovich, Donald J. 1992. Dangerous Ground: The World of Hazardous Waste Crime.
New Brunswick, N. J.: Transaction Press.
Reichman, Nancy. 1993. "Insider Trading." Crime and Justice 18:55-96.
Reuter, Peter. 1993. "The Cartage Industry in New York." Crime and Justice 18:149201Sparrow, Malcolm K. 1996. License to Steal: Why Fraud Plagues America's
Health Care System. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
Shover, Neal and Aaron S. Routhe. 2005. “Environmental Crime.” Crime and Justice 32:
321-71.
Sparrow, Malcolm K. 1998. "Fraud Control in the Health Care Industry : Assessing the
State of the Art.":11.
Szockyj, Elizabeth. 1993. The Law and Insider Trading: In Search of a Level Playing
Field. Buffalo: William S. Hein & Co.
Tillman, Robert. 1998. Broken Promises: Fraud by Small Business Health Insurers.
Boston: Northeastern University Press.
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Vaughan, Diane and Giovanna Carlo. 1975. "The Appliance Repairman: A Study of
Victim-Responsiveness and Fraud." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
12:153-61.
Yeager, Peter C. 1993. "Industrial Water Pollution." Crime and Justice 18:97-148.
Zietz, Dorothy. 1981. Women Who Embezzle Or Defraud : A Study of Convicted Felons.
New York, N.Y.: Praeger Publishers.
Who Is the White-Collar Offender?
The white-collar offender is almost always portrayed as a person of respectability and
high social status who occupies a powerful position in the legitimate economic or
political order. Recent research suggests that although such offenders certainly exist they
are not the norm.
Benson, Michael and Elizabeth Moore. 1992. "Are White-Collar and Common Offenders
the Same: An Empirical and Theoretical Critique of a Recently Proposed General
Theory of Crime." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 29(3):251-72.
Benson, Michael L. and Sally S. Simpson. 2009. White-Collar Crime: An Opportunity
Perspective. Chapter 2.
Croall, Hazel. 1989. "Who Is the White-Collar Criminal." British Journal of Criminology
29(2):157-74.
Daly, Kathleen. 1989. "Gender and Varieties of White-Collar Crime." Criminology
27:769-94.
Dodge, Mary. 2009. Women and White-Collar Crime. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice
Hall.
Stotland, Ezra. 1977. "White Collar Criminals." The Journal of Social Issues 33:179-96.
Weisburd, David, Elin Waring, and Ellen F. Chayet. 2001. White-Collar Crime and
Criminal Careers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Weisburd, David, Stanton Wheeler, Elin Waring, and N. Bode. 1991. Crimes of the
Middle Classes: White-Collar Offenders in the Federal Courts. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Controlling White-Collar Crime
Much of the literature on white-collar crime addresses the problem of control or lack of
control to be more accurate. The literature on regulation is voluminous. These pieces
should give you some idea of the problems that arise when we try to control white-collar
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crime using the traditional criminal justice system. They also introduce some of the
issues that regulatory approaches raise. Finally, some innovative alternative control
strategies are explored.
Albonetti, Celesta A. 1998. "Direct and Indirect Effects of Case Complexity, Guilty
Pleas, and Offender Characteristics on Sentencing for Offenders Convicted of a
White-Collar Offense Prior to Sentencing Guidelines." Journal of Quantitative
Criminology 14:353-78.
Ayers Kenneth A Jr. and Frank James. 1987. "Deciding to Prosecute White-Collar Crime:
A National Survey of State Attorneys General." Justice Quarterly 4:425-39.
Benson, Michael L. and Francis T. Cullen. 1998. Combating Corporate Crime: Local
Prosecutors at Work. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
Benson, Michael L. and Sally S. Simpson. 2009. White-Collar Crime: An Opportunity
Perspective. Chapter 9.
Benson, Michael L. and Francis T. Cullen. 1988. "The Special Sensitivity of WhiteCollar Offenders to Prison: A Critique and a Research Agenda." Journal of Criminal
Justice 16:207-15.
Benson, Michael L., Francis T. Cullen and William J. Maakestad. 1990. "Local
Prosecutors and Corporate Crime." Crime and Delinquency 36:356-72.
Braithwaite, John. 1982. "Enforced Self-Regulation: A New Strategy for Corporate
Crime Control." Michigan Law Review 80(7):1466-507.
———. 1981-1982. "The Limits of Economism in Controlling Harmful Corporate
Conduct." Law & Society Review 16(3):481-504.
Braithwaite John. 1982. "Challenging just Deserts: Punishing White-Collar Criminals."
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 73:723-63.
Braithwaite, John and Gilbert Geis. 2001. “On Theory and Action for Corporate Crime
Control.” Pp. 361-380 in Crimes of Privilege: Readings in White-Collar Crime,
edited by Neal Shover and John Paul Wright. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Brickey, Kathleen F. 2006. "In Enron's Wake: Corporate Executives on Trial." Journal of
Criminal Law & Criminology 96:397-433.
Clarke, Michael. 1990. "The Control of Insurance Fraud: A Comparative View." The
British Journal of Criminology 30(1):1-23.
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Frank, Nancy and Michael Lombness. 1988. Controlling Corporate Illegality: The
Regulatory Justice System. Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson.
Hagan John and Palloni Alberto. 1986. "Club Fed and the Sentencing of White-Collar
Offenders before and After Watergate." Criminology 24:603-21.
Hagan, John L. and Ilene H. Nagel. 1982. "White-Collar Crime, White-Collar Time: The
Sentencing of White-Collar Offenders in the Southern District of New York."
American Criminal Law Review 20:259-89.
Hagan, John, Ilene H. Nagel (Bernstein) and Celesta Albonetti. 1980. "The Differential
Sentencing of White-Collar Offenders in Ten Federal District Courts." American
Sociological Review 45:802-20.
Katz, Jack. 1979. "Legality and Equality: Plea Bargaining in the Prosecution of WhiteCollar and Common Crimes." Law and Society Review 13:431-59.
Mann, Kenneth. 1985. Defending White-Collar Crime: A Portrait of Attorneys at Work.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
———. 1992. "Procedure Rules and Information Control: Gaining Leverage Over
White-Collar Crime." Pp. 332-51 in White-Collar Crime Reconsidered, edited by
Kip Schlegel and David Weisburd. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Moore, Charles A. 1987. "Taming the Giant Corporation? some Cautionary Remarks on
the Deterrability of Corporate Crime." Crime and Delinquency 33:379-402.
O'Gara, John D. 2004. Corporate Fraud. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Schudson, Charles B., Ashton P. Onellion, and Ellen Hochstedler. 1984. "Nailing an
Omelet to the Wall: Prosecuting Nursing Home Homicide." Pp. 131-46 in
Corporations As Criminals, edited by Ellen Hochstedler. Beverely Hills, CA:
Sage.
Shapiro, Susan P. 1985. "The Road Not Taken: The Elusive Path to Criminal Prosecution
for White Collar Offenders." Law & Society Review 19(2):179-217.
Simpson, Sally S. and Christopher S. Koper. 1992. "Deterring Corporate Crime."
Criminology 30:347-75.
Vaughan, Diane. 1983. Controlling Unlawful Organizational Behavior. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Useful Textbooks and Readers
For general introductions to the field, these books provide a lot of good background
material.
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Friedrichs, David O. 2007. Trusted Criminals : White Collar Crime in Contemporary
Society. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. (Various editions)
Rosoff, Stephen, Henry Pontell, and Robert Tillman. 2007. Profit Without Honor: WhiteCollar Crime and the Looting of America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson (Various
editions)
Shover, Neal and Andrew Hochstetler. 2006. Choosing White-Collar Crime. Cambridge ;
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Geis, Gilbert and Ezra Stotland. 1980. White-Collar Crime : Theory and Research.
Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
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