Addressing Physical Accessibility and Economic Affordability
Of Regional Transportation in San Diego
Developing a strategy for regional transportation equity based on
an analysis of transportation policy
A research proposal submitted to the Urban Studies and Planning Program
University of California at San Diego
Kathryn Turner
USP 186 Section A02
k2turner@ucsd.edu
October 18, 2011
Abstract
This proposal examines the issue of transportation equity in the County of San Diego.
Scholars argue that transportation equity signifies the fair distribution of impacts, both
positive and negative, relating to the sector of transportation planning. These impacts
include, among others, the distribution of financial resources and infrastructure,
environmental quality, and health and safety effects. Based on current literature, I focus
my discussion on three main subsets of transportation equity: physical accessibility,
economic equity, and environmental justice. Specifically, this proposal analyzes whether
or not the levels of physical accessibility and economic affordability of regional
transportation are equitable between various San Diego communities that differ in
income level. Furthermore, the study will interject itself into the current discussion of
physical accessibility and economic affordability in San Diego through an analysis of
regional transportation policy. The research findings will be shared with the involved
parties in order to provide information on the best way to go about improving
transportation equity in San Diego.
Key terms: transportation equity, accessibility, regional transportation
Introduction
This proposal focuses on the issues of physical accessibility and economic affordability,
two components of transportation equity. The proposed research will address the current status
of these challenges in various communities in San Diego and will analyze proposed
transportation policies as they pertain to regional transportation in San Diego. This study will be
conducted in an effort to ascertain the degree to which regional transportation is equitable in San
Diego and what the best planning policies are to encourage regional transportation equity.
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Transportation impacts nearly every aspect of daily urban life, providing access to places
of work, recreation, learning, commerce, and residence for individuals throughout the United
States. It serves as an integral component in human social, cultural, and economic interaction,
not to mention providing access to food, water, basic necessities, and public services. As such,
an efficient and equitable system of transportation is in the best interest of the public and urban
society. Robert Bullard (2004) argues, “Transportation is basic to many other quality of life
indicators such as health, education, employment, economic development, access to municipal
services, residential mobility, and environmental quality” (1). Overall, transportation influences
the lives of individuals throughout urban America on a daily basis in a fundamental and
comprehensive manner.
As such, the theory of transportation equity has become one of significance in the sector
of transportation planning. In general, transportation equity refers to the fair distribution of
impacts, both positive and negative, resulting from the overall system of transportation.
Transportation equity can be grouped into three major subtopics, which include physical
accessibility, economic equity, and environmental justice. This proposal specifically addresses
the issues of physical accessibility and economic affordability of regional transportation in San
Diego by comparing communities of different socioeconomic levels. The research will analyze
whether or not San Diego demonstrates these aspects of transportation equity. The study will
interject itself into the current discussion in regional transportation planning in San Diego by
comparing SANDAG’s Regional Transportation Plan and Cleveland National Forest
Foundation’s 50-10 Transit Plan as they pertain to physical accessibility and economic
affordability. Through an analysis of current regional transportation policy, the research will
examine the best ways to encourage transportation equity in San Diego.
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Literature Review: An Analysis of Transportation Equity
The importance of transportation in the basic functioning of urban society raises the issue
of transportation equity, which Bullard (2004) argues incorporates the concepts of equity, justice,
and fairness as they apply to transportation planning and land use development. The issue of
equity differs slightly from that of equality. Equality as it relates to social perspectives is defined
by the Oxford English Dictionary as the state of being the same in value, status, rights, or
opportunities. On the other hand, social equity refers to the fair distribution of resources
between individuals. It depends on the needs of each individual and is measured by comparing
the ratio of resources and an individual’s contributions. In order for a situation to be socially
equitable, these ratios must be similar, but do not have to be identical in every manner
(Frederickson 1990).
The theory of social equity is similar to that of transportation equity. In the context of
transportation, equity also refers to the ratio of resources and benefits to the costs and
contributions of an individual. According to Sanchez, Stolz, and Ma (2003), this theory seeks
“fairness in mobility and accessibility levels across race, class, gender, and disability. The
ultimate objective of transportation equity is to provide equal access to social and economic
opportunity by providing equitable levels of access to all places” (10). Similarly, Todd Litman
(2002), scholar and executive director of Victoria Transport Policy Institute, an independent
research organization focused on issues and solutions to transportation challenges, refers to
transportation equity as the distribution of impacts, both positive and negative, that result from
the current transportation and land use systems. He acknowledges that transportation equity is
often difficult to measure and evaluate and, as a result, is often challenging to incorporate into
the process of transportation planning. Overall, Litman (2002) emphasizes that transportation
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equity refers to the fair and just distribution of impacts. Michael Ircha and Margaret Gallagher
(1985), Professor and Research Assistant respectfully at the University of New Brunswick’s
Department of Civil Engineering, present a similar line of argument. They refer to equity as a
just process that distributes evenly all components of transportation, both positive and negative.
Ircha and Gallagher (1985) additionally describe equity as involving “the concept of
compensation for relative deprivation (a process in which society makes up the difference in the
quality of life for handicapped persons)” (3). In the setting of transportation, this ideology would
promote not only the equitable distribution of impacts, but would also urge transportation
planners to put more resources into addressing issues faced by individuals normally
disadvantaged in the transportation sector such as low-income, minority, and inner-city residents,
so as to make up for discrepancies in quality of life. In general, scholars argue that
transportation equity is the fair distribution or ratio of resources, costs, and benefits of the
transportation system between individuals, though some argue in favor of providing more
resources for those disadvantaged by the transportation system.
Transportation equity, in addition to the descriptions given above, can be grouped into
overarching themes. Litman (2002) describes transportation equity in a few general categories:
physical mobility and accessibility, economic mobility and affordability, and health and
environmental quality. Bullard (2004) describes transportation equity using similar emphases. I
will refer to these three major subtopics as I continue to review the current literature on
transportation equity.
Accessibility, in the realm of transportation equity, refers to an individual’s ability to
reach desired destinations and activities and to obtain goods and services. Britton Harris (2001)
presents locations of particular importance as being those related to occupation, shopping and
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recreation, education, and public health and safety service. Like Harris (2001), Litman (2003)
argues that the theory of accessibility assumes that access to desired destinations or opportunities
is the ultimate goal of transportation, but that there are many plausible modes of transportation.
Handy and Clifton (2001) present a similar definition of accessibility declaring, “accessibility
reflects the ease of reaching needed or desired activities and thus reflects characteristics of both
the land-use system (where activities are located) and the transportation system (how the
locations of activities are linked)” (68). In this definition, Handy and Clifton (2001) present
accessibility as a spatial issue that involves both the systems of transportation (how activities are
linked) and land use (where activities are located) by engaging a means of transportation and a
destination. Therefore, Handy and Clifton also argue that accessibility also depends on activity
patterns of individuals.
Another important aspect of transportation equity, in addition to accessibility, is
economic equity. To begin with, this concept covers the equitable distribution of financial
resources related to transportation among communities and individuals. This includes but is not
limited to infrastructure development and transit investment. Economic equity also includes the
benefits a community gains through transportation planning and development. For instance, a
study prepared by Cambridge Systematics (1999) demonstrated the economic benefits of public
transportation on a community, which include job creation, infusion of spending into the local
economy, increased business profits and personal income, and increased quality of life. The
study found: “Business output and personal income are positively impacted by transit
investment, growing rapidly over time. These transportation user impacts create savings to
business operations, and increase the overall efficiency of the economy, positively affecting
business sales and household incomes” (Cambridge Systematics 1999, E-1). The equitable
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distribution of these positive impacts of transportation planning is an important economic aspect
of transportation equity. Bullard (2004) argues that such economic benefits are generally not
distributed across populations, but instead transportation amenities typically favor wealthier and
more educated communities while many of the burdens fall on low-income and minority
individuals and neighborhoods. Bullard (2004) notes that transportation equity also includes the
affordability of transportation. He argues that Americans spend more of their income on
transportation than anything else except for housing, including education, food, and health care.
Similarly, Janice Tait (1979) argues that though low-income households that own automobiles
drive fewer miles, they still spend a larger proportion of their income on transportation than do
higher income households. Bullard (2004) states that the nation’s poorest families spend 40% of
their income on costs related to transportation. For these reasons, scholars argue that
affordability and fair distribution of resources are significant components of transportation
equity.
Finally, environmental justice is also a significant component of transportation equity.
According the US Environmental Protection Agency, environmental justice is the “fair treatment
and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income
with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies” (US EPA). In terms of transportation equity, environmental justice
also refers to the fair distribution of impacts resulting from the transportation sector such as air
pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and destruction of open space and wildlife habitat. Bullard
(2004) studies the health effects of air pollutants such as ozone, which can cause or exacerbate
health issues such as asthma and other respiratory illnesses. Charles Lee (2002) argues that such
environmental and public health issues disproportionately affect low-income minority
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communities in inner city areas and an intersection between health care, environmental science,
and planning is necessary to obtain environmental justice for all populations. As a result,
environmental justice is a significant component of transportation equity and deserves further
analysis. However, due to the constraints of time and space, the proposed research will focus on
physical accessibility and economic affordability of regional transportation and not on
environmental justice.
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what I will be focusing on: physical accessibility and economic affordability
How my research fits in with the current and existing dialogue portrayed in the lit
review
How this all relates to San Diego: Brief overview of the two plans and or current
situation
Research Design and Methods
This proposal outlines a research strategy to examine physical accessibility and economic
affordability of regional transportation in San Diego. San Diego has been chosen as a case study
not only because of its location or the proximity and availability of data, but also because of the
current dialogue and political immediacy of regional transportation in San Diego. Over the past
few years, the San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG), a regional governing body,
has been charged with developing intricate plans for transportation development throughout San
Diego. Once in place, these plans will direct the future of transportation in San Diego and will
oversee the use of substantial amounts of public finance for over 50 years. Currently, San Diego
stands at a crossroads in the arena of transportation planning and, as a result, these plans for the
future of regional transportation in the county have been hotly debated. Objections have arisen
to certain aspects of SANDAG’s 2050 Regional Transportation Plan (RTP) and other plans and
revisions have been suggested. Due to the fact that regional transportation is an especially
important topic in San Diego, this proposal seeks to address the current status of transportation
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equity and provide an understanding of how the proposed plans address physical accessibility
and equity so as to provide information on the best way to go about improving transportation
equity in San Diego
In order to accomplish these objectives, the research design will be based primarily on
spatial data. The applicable data will be presented and analyzed in the form of a multi-layer GIS
map. These layers will include maps of (1) population density and income levels of
neighborhoods throughout San Diego, (2) alternative transit routes, highways, and major roads,
(3) travel time, and (4) important destination locations. This variety of data will provide insight
into the physical accessibility of transportation and important destinations for individuals in
various communities throughout San Diego. I have some previous experience in GIS in a
previous research study in which I mapped the locations of businesses throughout Southeastern
San Diego in order to determine the density of physical businesses in the area. I am also
currently working on an interactive map of all of the farmers markets in San Diego and am in the
middle of an online ArcGIS class through ESRI. In addition to the multi-layer GIS map of San
Diego, I will examine a few neighborhoods in the city on both sides of the socioeconomic
spectrum so as to further analyze the levels of accessibility in each community. This analysis
will provide me with information on the levels of physical accessibility and economic
affordability between the neighborhoods of different socioeconomic status. These
neighborhoods will be selected carefully so as to give a representative picture of transportation
equity in the San Diego region. This method of case study comes with some weaknesses
involved in relying on parts to be representative of the whole. This source of error will be taken
into consideration and minimized at much as possible through a careful selection of the target
neighborhoods.
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Scholastic research, analysis, and interviews regarding the economic affordability of
transportation will further complement the GIS data and research described above. Scholastic
research will include a brief review of current literature on the topic of affordability of
transportation with a specific focus on automobile ownership and public transit use. This
analysis will provide insight into and collect data that has previously been done in the subject
area. The strength of this approach to research on the economic affordability of transportation is
that the subject has been a focus of a significant number of research studies and papers.
However, there will be some discrepancies that will need to be taken into account when
comparing the data found through this method of research. This study will need to take into
account the differences between case studies and set of circumstances in San Diego in addition to
any monetary conversions that need to be done between locations or time periods.
At this point, the timetable for the proposed research on accessibility will be laid out in a
progression of data collection and analysis that will build on each other. Primarily, further
analysis of research methods in study of accessibility will be analyzed. Then, representative
neighborhoods will be selected that will serve s case studies to characterize San Diego as a
whole. The next step will be to collect the data that will go into creating the multi-layer GIS
map. Following the collection of this data, the map will be created. The trends depicted on the
map will then be analyzed.
A timetable for the study of economic affordability is simpler than that of accessibility
and will primarily incorporate scholarly research and study of affordability as it pertains to
transportation. Afterwards, a literature review will be created and interviews with the
appropriate people will be conducted. At this point, the information will be gathered and
analyzed.
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This research strategy will provide a thorough analysis of the accessibility and
affordability of transportation in various neighborhoods throughout San Diego. After an analysis
of the current status of transportation equity in San Diego, the study will interject itself into the
current discussion in regional transportation planning in San Diego by comparing SANDAG’s
Regional Transportation Plan and Cleveland National Forest Foundation’s 50-10 Transit Plan as
they pertain to physical accessibility and economic affordability. The different policies proposed
by each plan will be compared and analyzed in order to determine whether or not they would be
beneficial to the future of regional transportation equity in San Diego. Through an analysis of
current regional transportation policy, the research will examine the best ways to encourage
transportation equity in San Diego. The findings will be shared with the involved parties in
order to provide information on the best way to go about improving transportation equity.
Expected Outcomes and Conclusion
The proposed research seeks to analyze the extent to which regional transportation is
equitable in various San Diego communities that differ in income level with an emphasis on
physical accessibility and economic affordability. This research will provide an analysis of the
current status of transportation equity in San Diego. The results will most likely indicate that
regional transportation is not equitable between various neighborhoods in the city and that there
is much room for improvement in the areas of accessibility and affordability between
neighborhoods of different socioeconomic levels.
Research on the current status of regional transportation equity will then be used to
analyze proposed plans regional transportation plans for San Diego. The two plans that will be
analyzed are SANDAG’s Regional Transportation Plan and the Cleveland National Forest
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Foundation’s 50-10 Transit Plan. The policies presented in these two plans will be analyzed in
an effort to determine the best ways to proceed in the sector of transportation policy and planning
in order to improve accessibility and affordability of transportation in San Diego.
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