Carol Flanagan
MA TESOL Portfolio
C & A Materials
SPEAKING
Background:
The ability to speak is both cognitive and physiological. Difficulties in speaking in a new
language can be related to either challenges in manipulating the mouth, tongue breath and
voice or to challenges in processing language in the brain. Therefore, any approach to
addressing persistent problems in the development of speaking skills must consider both the
physical and cognitive aspects of speech.
Cognitive challenges Speaking skills are built from the ability to listen, perceive, and
organize sounds into words and meaning. When a learner has persistent problems in
speaking, one of the primary causes is often a lack of phonological processing skills
(Schwarz, 2007). The two essential dimensions of phonological processing are 1.
phonological awareness and 2. phonological memory.
Symptoms & signs:
* Learners mispronounce single words repeatedly despite multiple repetitions.
* Learners forget words in oral repetition drills.
* Learners are unable to reproduce strings of words either immediately or over time.
Interventions:
* PROVIDE MORE AUDITORY SCAFFOLDING. (McPherson, 1997)
Minimize the number of vocabulary items or structures covered in one lesson. Slow the pace.
Provide more repetitions for the Ss to listen to first, then focus on listening discrimination and
identification of words without the need for Ss to produce language. Finally, elicit production
from Ss.
* TAKE CLASS TIME TO MAKE LEARNER FLASHCARDS FOR VOCABULARY AND
SOUNDS. (Finn, 2010)
Ss can practice at home and develop phonemic awareness and memory as well as self-study
skills.
* REMEDIATE ON PHONOLOGICAL SKILLS. (Schwarz, R. 2007)
Assess phonological awareness and phonological memory. Diagnose phoneme awareness
by asking initial letter sounds, asking how many sounds are in a word like “rent,” or test using
deletion by asking the learner to say a word like “football” and then to say the word without
“foot” (this is an advanced skill in phoneme awareness). Help build perception of rhyme. Use
words that rhyme that the learners already know. Have them match pictures of things whose
words rhyme. Once sounds are recognized and gaps identified, re-teach unfamiliar
phonemes.
Help strengthen phoneme memory by building word length slowly with Ss. Provide memory
tasks focused on one syllable words first before moving to larger words. Provide explicit
instruction in perceiving sound differences using minimal pairs. Help Ss perceive one word in
a string. For learners stuck at higher levels, provide practice in phoneme counting and
instruct on and expose Ss to sounds of reduced speech and linked speech.
Carol Flanagan
MA TESOL Portfolio
C & A Materials
Physical challenges
Learners often struggle to make the sounds of English, which are often not present in their
first language. This problem can be due to unfamiliarity with the sound or a lack of
understanding of how to make the sound using the mouth, tongue, teeth, voice and breath.
Symptoms & signs:
* Learners do not even attempt to repeat sounds or words when asked.
* Learners confuse or mix sounds that are made in similar areas of the mouth.
* Learners avoid certain sounds or words.
Interventions:
* PROVIDE EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION IN HOW TO MAKE SOUNDS. Show diagrams of the
mouth and tongue. Encourage learners to look at the mouth when they listen to a speaker.
Use mirrors and have learners look at their mouths as they create modelled sounds and
words.
* RAISE AWARENESS OF BREATH AND VOICE. Help learners notice the vibration of their
vocal cords in voiced sounds compared to voiceless sounds. Help learners notice breath on
aspirated sounds by using paper or hands in front of the mouth.
Other factors For refugees and immigrants, specifically, a number of other factors can affect
speaking abilities or performance, including: culture shock, anxiety, lack of confidence,
personality, and cultural beliefs about participation or the nature of learning.
Some general principles to follow in lesson design and pedagogy:
* For learners with limited literacy in their first language, it is essential to begin English
instruction with” oral langauge that is cognitively undemanding” (McPherson, 1997). Teachers
should use context-embedded language so that language is attached to highly concrete,
immediate, localized experience.
* Establish routines and structures that repeat and provide consistency in the speaking
classroom, changing only the content of the language.
* Place lessons in a linguistic framework, even if simplified, to highlight patterns and explain
how language works (Schwarz, R. 2007).
* Create opportunities for communicative tasks with classmates. Build from short, structured
pair sharing and response to more challenging open communicative tasks.
* Recycle vocabulary in tasks for multiple exposure and use (Finn, 2010).
* Create a safe space in which learners have the choice of opting out of speaking tasks if
they are experiencing anxiety or discomfort. Design other tasks to have ready for these
learners so that they are still engaged in the lesson.
* Use short, fun, low-stakes speaking tasks such as repetition of rhymes, simple poems, or
chants to build learner confidence.
References
Finn, H. B. (2010). Overcoming barriers: Adult refugee trauma survivors in a learning
community. TESOL Quarterly, 44(3), 586-596.
McPherson, 1997. Investigating learner outcomes for clients with special needs in the
Adult Migrant English Program. Sydney, Marquette University.
Carol Flanagan
MA TESOL Portfolio
C & A Materials
Schwarz, R. (2007). Addressing potential impediments to learning with ESOL students.
Focus on Basics, 8(4), 20-25.
Problems, observations, issues:
1. T makes Ss repeat mispronounced words with limited success
2. Student is persistently unable to recall words in oral repetition drills
3. Persistent stagnation of oral skill development
4.Ss very were not prompted to communicate with one another (except for the small group
that the assistant teacher led towards the end of class, there was no group or pair work.
Speaking practice was highly controlled. Teacher asked display questions to which there
was only one correct answer. Ss were not encouraged to try guided or communicative
activities.
Interventions: Strategies, techniques, methods, research to address above:
1. Provide Ss with visual representation of mouth and important feature for pronunciation. T
can also model features of correct pronunciation (tongue placement, teeth placement) as
well. Use mirrors to have Ss look at their mouths as they produce modeled sounds.
2. PROVIDE MORE AUDITORY SCAFFOLDING = Minimize the number of vocabulary items
or structures covered in one lesson. Slow the pace. Provide more repetitions for the Ss to
listen to first, then focus on listening discrimination and identification of words without the
need for Ss to produce language. Finally, elicit production from Ss.
Take class time to make learner flash cards for vocabulary. They can practice at home and
develop their self-study skills.
3. REMEDIATE ON PHONOLOGICAL SKILLS = assess phonological awareness and
phonological memory
Interventions -- test phoneme awareness by asking initial letter sounds, asking how many
sounds are in a word like “rent,” or test using deletion by asking the learner to say a word like
“football” and then to say the word without “foot” (this is an advanced skill in phoneme
Carol Flanagan
MA TESOL Portfolio
C & A Materials
awareness). Help build perception of rhyme. Use words that rhyme that the learners already
know. Have them match pictures of things whose words rhyme. (Schwarz, R. 2007)
Once sounds are recognized and gaps identified, re-teach the unfamiliar phonemes.
Interventions for phoneme memory-- build word length slowly. Provide explicit instruction in
perceiving sound
differences...minimal pairs...helping perceive one word in a
string...reduced speech, linked speech. Place lessons in a linguistic
framework, even if simplified...helps explain how language works. (Schwarz, R. 2007)
References
Croydon, A. (2005). Making It Real: Teaching Pre-literate Adult Refugee Students. Tacoma:
Tacoma Community House Training Project.
Finn, H. B. (2010). Overcoming barriers: Adult refugee trauma survivors in a learning
community. TESOL Quarterly, 44(3), 586-596.
McPherson, 1997. Investigating learner outcomes for clients with special needs in the
Adult Migrant English Program. Sydney, Marquette University.
Schwarz, R. (2007). Addressing potential impediments to learning with ESOL students.
Focus on Basics, 8(4), 20-25.
Other