Raising a Bilingual Child by Barbara Zurer Pearson
Notes for Chapter 1.
page
4
monolingualism the exception: D. Crystal, The Language Revolution,
(Cambridge UK: Polity Press, 2004), p 93.
4
language diversity index: R. Gordon, Jr. (Ed.), Ethnologue: Languages of the
World, Fifteenth edition. (Dallas, TX.: SIL International, 2005). Online
version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.
4
Census Data: Gateway to Latest Census Data on Language Use.
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jWCRAWFORD/census02.htm
4
Linguist Althea Gupta: “Bilingual and Multilingual Children: Another
Perspective,” Ask-A-Linguist FAQ, Linguistlist.org, consulted 10/6/06.
5
Jane Merrill: Bringing up baby bilingual. (NY: Facts on File, Inc., 1984)
7
George Saunders: Bilingual children: From birth to teens (Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters, 1988).
8
Types of motivation: R.C. Gardner & W. E. Lambert, Attitudes and motivation
in 2nd language learning (Rowley MA: Newbury House, 1972).
8
Ariel Dorfman, “The Wandering Bigamists of Language,” In I. De Courtivron
(Ed.), Lives in Translation, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 36.
9
Income patterns: S. Fradd & T. Boswell, “Income patterns of bilingual and
English-only Hispanics in selected metropolitan areas.” In S. Fradd (Ed.),
Creating Florida’s multilingual global workforce. (Tallahassee FL: Florida
Dept. of Education, 1999).
9
FBI agent: L. Wright, "The Agent," New Yorker, July 9, 2002.
11
Translations: Nuala Ni Dhomhnaill, “Linguistic ecology: Preventing a great
loss.” In I. De Courtivron (Ed.), Lives in Translation, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan,
2003) pp. 79-92.
12
Richard Rodriguez: Hunger of Memory (Boston: D.R.Godine, 1982) p. 23.
12-3
Language of comfort: V. Gathercole et al., Report for Welsh Language Board,
Language Transmission in Bilingual Families in Wales, (Bangor,Wales, 2005).
14
Help to 3rd language: E. Bild & M. Swain, “Minority language students in a
French programme: Their French proficiency.” Journal of Multilingual and
Pearson 2008/ RBC
Multicultural Development, 10 (1989), 255-274.
15
Both languages always activated: F. Grosjean et al., “Imaging bilinguals: When
the neurosciences meet the language sciences,” Bilingualism: Language and
Cognition 6 (2003): 159–165. Also: Francis, W. S. “Bilingual semantic and
conceptual representation.” In J. Kroll & A.M. B. de Groot (Eds.), Handbook of
Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches (pp. 251-267). Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005.
17
Switch to “dictionary matches”: R. W. Brown & J. Berko, “Word association
and the acquisition of grammar.” Child Development 31 (1960): 1-14. BL:
Sheng, L., McGregor, K., & Marian, V. (2006). Lexical-semantic organization
in bilingual children: Evidence from a repeated word association task. Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 572-587.
18
Natural versus non-natural meaning: C.S. Pierce, Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2006/entries/peirce/#seme
18
Sun-moon experiment: J. Piaget, The child's conception of the world. (NY:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1929).
18
Sun-moon experiment with bilinguals: J. Cummins, “Bilingualism and the
development of metalinguistic awareness,” Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 9 (1978): 131-149.
18
Variation on sun-moon: C. Feldman & M. Shen, “Some language-related
cognitive advantages of bilingual five-year-olds,” Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 118 (1971): 235-244.
20
Concept of print: for example, Marie Clay, Concepts about print. (Portsmouth
NH: Heinemann, 2000).
21
Comparing bilinguals with different language pairs: E. Bialystok, “Bilingualism
at school: Effect on the acquisition of literacy,” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.),
Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age, pp. 107-124.
(Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006).
21-2
Moving card task: E. Bialytok, “Letters, sounds, and symbols: Changes in
children's understanding of written language.” Developmental Psychology 28
(1991): 654-664.
22-3
Reading in two languages: D.K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and
literacy in bilingual children. (Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002).
23
Greater mental flexibility: W. E. Lambert, “The effects of bilingualism on the
individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences.” In P.Hornby (Ed.)
2
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Bilingualism. Psychological, social, and educational implications, pp. 15-28,
(NY: Academic Press, 1977).
23
C. Kessler & M.E. Quinn, “Language minority children's linguistic and cognitive
creativity.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 8 (1987):
173-186.
23
Problem solving: S. Ben-Zeev, “The influence of bilingualism on cognitive
strategy and cognitive development.” Child Development, 48 (1977): 1009-1018.
24
Stroop test: J.R. Stroop, “Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.”
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, (1935): 643-662.
24-5
Selective attention: P.D. Zelazo, D. Frye & T. Rapus, “Age-related dissociation
between knowing rules and using them.” Cognitive Development, 11 (1996): 3763.
25
Simon effect: Simon, J. R., Acosta, E., Mewaldt, S. P., & Speidel, C. R. (1976).
The effect of an irrelevant directional cue on choice reaction time: Duration of
the phenomenon and its relation to stages of processing. Perception &
Psychophysics, 19, 16–22.
25
Simon effect in children: M.M. Martin & E. Bialystok, The development of two
kinds of inhibition in monolingual and bilingual children: Simon versus Stroop.
Poster presented at the meeting of the Cognitive Development Society, Park City
UT, April 2003.
25
Simon effect through lifespan: E. Bialystok, F.M. Craik, R. Klein, M.
Viswanathan, “Bilingualism, aging,and cognitive control: Evidence from the
Simon Task,” Psychology and Aging, 19 (2004): 290-303.
25-6
Bilingualism and dementia: E. Bialystok, F.I.M. Craik & M. Freedman,
“Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia.”
Neuropsychologia, 45 (2007): 459-464.
27
Quote from Grosjean:
27
Linguistic relativity: B. L. Whorf, Language, thought, and reality, (NY: MIT
Press & John Wiley and Sons, 1956).
28
“Weak form” of relativity: W. Phillips & L. Boroditsky, “Can quirks of
grammar affect the way you think? Grammatical gender and object concepts,”
Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society.
Boston, MA, August, 2003.
28-9
Relativity in verbs: L. Naigles & P. Terrazas, “Motion verb generalizations in
3
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English and Spanish: Influences of language and syntax.” Psychological Science
9 (1998): 363-369.
29-30
Indonesian experiment: L. Boroditsky, W. Ham, & M. Ramscar, “What is
universal about event perception? Comparing English and Indonesian speakers,”
Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society,
Fairfax, VA, August, 2002.
30
Early language specific thinking: M. Bowerman, “The origins of children’s
spatial semantic categories: Cognitive versus linguistic determinants,” In J. J.
Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 145-176).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
30-1
Later language specific thinking: J. A. Lucy, Grammatical Categories and
Cognition. (NY: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). Also, J. A. Lucy & S. Gaskins,
Vygotsky and the culture of language. Paper presented at Society for Research in
Child Development, Kansas City, April 1989.
32-3
Effect on social attitudes: S. Wright & L. Tropp, “Investigating the impact of
bilingual instruction on children’s intergroup attitudes,” Group Processes &
Intergroup Relations 8 (2005): 309-328.
33
Saving endangered languages: J. Fishman (Ed.), Can threatened languages be
saved: Reversing language shift, revisited. (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters, 2001).
33-4
Statistics about Welsh: Welsh Language Board website, http://www.bwrdd-yriaith.org.uk/ (last accessed 4/2007)
35
Esperanto: http://esperanto.net/info/index_en.html (last accessed 1/2007)
35
Number of English speakers: D. Crystal, The language revolution. (Cambridge:
Polity Press, 2004), p. 9.
35
Words for snow: G. Pullum, The great Eskimo vocabulary hoax. (Chicago:U of
Chicago Press, 1991).
35
Quechua “we”: D. Sommer (Ed.), Bilingual games: Some literary investigations,
Introduction, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) p. 8.
35
Relative friendship terms: E. Hoffman, Lost in translation, (NY: Dutton, 1989).
Also in A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as a tool for exploring
bilingual lives.” International Journal of Bilingualism 9 (1005): 7-26.
35
Against monoculture: M. Pollan, Botany of Desire. (NY: Random House, 2001).
4
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35-6
Potato famine: The Future of Food, Deborah Koons, writer, producer, director,
Lily Films. (Mill Valley CA, 2004).
36
On “unnatural selection”: G. Steiner, Errata: An Examined Life (New Haven
CT: Yale University Press, 1997) p.113.
36
Separated by a common language: In E. Esar, Treasury of humorous quotations,
(Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1949).
37
Loss of linguistic diversity: D. Crystal, “Languages in danger,” p. 47 ff. (See
note for p. 4.) Also: K. David Harrison When languages die: The extinction of
the world’s languages and the erosion of human knowledge. (NY: Oxford
University Press, 2007).
Notes for Chapter 2.
43
Dexterity for speaking: The Human Language Series (film), Gene Searchinger
(producer), Equinox Films, 1994
43
Powerful “learning machine”: A. Gopnik, A. Meltzoff, & P. Kuhl, The Scientist
in the Crib (NY: Wm Morrow & Co., 1999), p.1.
43-4
LAD: N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1965).
44
LASS: J. Bruner, Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language (NY: Norton, 1983).
45
Early auditory development: L. Eliot, What's going on in there? How the brain
and mind develop in the first five years of life (NY: Bantam Books, 1999),
pp.365-366.
46-7
Turn-taking, etc: C. Snow, “The development of conversation between mothers
and babies.” Journal of Child Language 4 (1977): 1-22. M. Carpenter, K. Nagell,
and M. Tomasello, “Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative
competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monographs of the Society for
Research in Child Development 63 (1998) Serial No. 255.
47
Early vocal development: M.M Vihman, Phonological Development: The
Origins of Language in the Child (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); D. K. Oller, The
Emergence of the Speech Capacity. Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2000.
48
Statistical learning: J.R. Saffran, “Statistical language learning: Mechanisms and
constraints,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12 (2003), 110-114.
48
How many speech sounds: S. Pinker, The Language Instinct (NY: Wm Morrow,
5
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1994), p. 161.
48-9
Learning to ignore sound contrasts: J. Werker & R. C. Tees, “Cross-language
speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of
life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7 (1984): 49-63.
49
Recognizing stress pattern: P. Jusczyk, The discovery of spoken language
(Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1997).
50
Parentese: E. L. Newport, H. Gleitman, & L. R. Gleitman, “Mother, I'd rather do
it myself: Some effects and non-effects of maternal speech.” In C. Snow & C.
Ferguson (Eds.), Talking to children: Language input and acquisition (pp. 109150). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
51
First words from routines: K. Nelson, Making sense: The acquisition of shared
meaning, (NY: Academic Press, 1985).
51
What is a name: R. Golinkoff, C. Mervis, & K. Hirsh-Pasek, “Early object
labels: The case for a developmental lexical principles framework,” Journal of
Child Language, 21 (1994), 125-156.
51-2
Common nouns and proper nouns: N. Katz, E. Baker,& J. McNamara, “What's
in a name? A study of how children learn common and proper names,” Child
Development, 45 (1974), 469-473. Also: S. Gelman & M. Taylor, “How twoyear-old children interpret proper and common names for unfamiliar objects.”
Child Development, 55, 1535-1540.
52-3
Learning verbs: L. Gleitman & H. Gleitman, “A picture is worth a thousand
words, but that's the problem: The role of syntax in vocabulary acquisition.”
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1 (1992), 31-35. Also C. Fisher,
“Structural limits on verb mapping: The role of abstract structure in 2.5-yearolds' interpretations of novel verbs Developmental Science 5 (2002), 55–64.
53
Learning mental state verbs: K. Asplin, Can complement frames help children
learn the meaning of abstract verbs? Doctoral dissertation, University of
Massachusetts Amherst, 2002.
54
Associative learning: S. Pinker, The language instinct, Chapter 5 “Words, words,
words.” (NY: Wm. Morrow, 1994).
55-6
Learning the system, generative grammar: N. Chomsky, Aspects of the theory of
syntax. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1965).
56
Animal grammar: M. Tomasello, “Can an ape understand a sentence?”
Language & Communication, 14 (1994), 377-390. Also, I. Pepperberg, The Alex
Studies: Cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots, (Cambridge
6
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MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).
57
Eager/ easy to please: C. Chomsky, The acquisition of syntax in children from 5
to 10, (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1969).
58
Baby algebra: G. Marcus, S. Vijayan, S. Bandi Rao, & P. M. Vishton, “Rule
learning by seven-month-old infants,” Science, 283 (1999), 77-80.
58
Recursion, infinity: Chomsky, see note for p. 55.
59
Discourse after age 5: M.Hickmann, Children's discourse: Person, space, and
time across languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
60
Communicative competence: D.Hymes, “Models of the interaction of language
and social life,” In J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in
sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication (pp. 35-71) NY: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston., 1972.
62
Following gaze: L. Eliot, “Wiring up the visual brain,” What’s going on in
there? (NY: Bantam Books, 1999).
63
Vocabulary tables: L. Fenson et al., MacArthur-Bates Communicative
Development Inventory Technical Manual (Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2003).
64
BICS & CALP: J. Cummins, “Cognitive/academic language proficiency,
linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters.”
Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19 (1979): 121-129.
64
Understanding irony: Andrews, J., Rosenblatt, E., Malkus, U., Gardner, H., &
Winner, E. (1986). Children's abilities to distinguish metaphoric and ironic
utterances from mistakes and lies. Communication and Cognition, 19, 3/4, 281298.
64-5
Estimates of heredity: R. J. Sternberg & E. Grigorenko (Eds.), Environmental
effects on cognitive abilities. (Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 2001).
65
SLI runs in families: J. Niels. & D. M. Aram, “Family history of children with
developmental language disorders.” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63 (1986),
655-658.
65
“Grammar gene”: F.Vargha-Khadem et al.,”Neural basis of an inherited speech
and language disorder.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 95
(1998): 12695 – 12700.
65
Twin studies illustration: M. Cole, S. Cole, & C. Lightfoot, The development of
children, 5th edition. (NY: Worth Publisher, 2005), p. 60.
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65
Behaviorist views of language: B.F. Skinner, Verbal Behavior (NY: Appleton,
Century,Croft, 1957).
66
Chomsky’s review of Verbal Behavior: N. Chomsky, A Review of B.F.
Skinner's “Verbal Behavior,” Language, 35 (1959), 26-58.
67
Learning from input: V. C. Gathercole & E. Hoff, “Input and the acquisition of
language: Three questions.” In E. Hoff & M. Shatz (Eds.), The handbook of
language development (pp. 107-127). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007.
68-9
Quantity of input: B. Hart & T. Risley, Meaningful differences in the everyday
experiences of young American children. (Baltimore MD: Paul Brooks, 1995).
69-70
Need for listening: R. Burns-Hoffman, A discourse analysis of variation in
children’s language in preschool, small group settings. Ph.D. diss., University of
Colorado at Boulder, 1992.
70
Role of parent interaction: B. Hart & T. Risley, The social world of children
learning to talk. (Baltimore MD: Paul Brooks, 1999).
70-1
Review of TV learning: D. R. Anderson & T. Pempek, Television and Very
Young Children, American Behavioral Scientist 48 (2005), 505-522.
71
Hearing children of deaf parents: S. Pinker, p. 278. (see note for p. 48)
71
Hearing child of deaf parents, case study: L. Naigles & L. Mayeux, Television as
incidental language teacher. In D. Singer & J. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of
children and the media (pp. 135-152). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage., 2001.
71-2
Talking book study: M. Collins & J. Parish, Electronic books: Boon or bust for
interactive reading? Poster presented at the Boston University Conference on
Language Development, Boston, November 2006.
72
Positive input: B. Hart & T. Risley (see note for p. 68)
73
Hiam Ginott: Between parent and child: New solutions to old problems. (NY:
Macmillan, 1965).
73
Recasts and turnabouts: K. Kaye & R. Charney, “How mothers maintain
‘dialogue’ with two-year-olds.” In D. R. Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of
language and thought, (pp. 211-230). NY: Norton, 1980.
74-5
Jake story adapted from R. Burns-Hoffman, personal communication.
75
Zone of proximal development: L.Vygotsky, Thought and language. (Cambridge
8
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MA: MIT Press, 1962).
Chapter 3 Notes:
79
Multilingual Acquisition Device (MAD): D. Crystal (2004:93), see note for page
4.
84
“Operating principles for language learners”: D. Slobin, The cross-linguistic study
of language acquisition. (Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 1985).
85
LAD available or not to older learners: L. Eubank (Ed.), Point counterpoint.
Universal Grammar in the second language. (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1991.)
85-6
Stages of SLA: P. Tabors, One child, two languages: A guide for preschool
educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore: Paul
Brookes, 1997. (2nd edition to appear soon.)
86
Formulaic speech in SLA: L. Wong-Fillmore, “Individual differences in second
language acquisition.” In C. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S. –Y. Wang (Eds.),
Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 203-227).
San Diego: Academic Press, 1979.
87
Native versus near-native speakers: K. Hyltemstam & N. Abrahamsson, “Who
can become native-like in a second language? All, some, or none?” Studia
Linguistica 54/2 (2000): 150-166.
91-3
Types of aphasia: L. Eliot, What’s going on in there? How the brain and mind
develop in the first five years of life. (NY: Bantam Books, 1999). Chapter 14:
“Language and the developing brain.”
93
Right hemisphere aphasia: M. Albert & L. K. Obler, The bilingual brain:
Neuropsychological and neurolinguistc aspects of bilingualism. NY: Academic
Press, 1978.
93
Unstable aphasia: Reported in F. Grosjean, Life with two languages. (Cambridge
MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 260.
93-4
Laboratory techniques for infant perception: K. Karmiloff & A. Karmiloff-Smith,
Pathways to language: From fetus to adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 2001. (also in chapter 7)
94
Brain activation for speech: K. H. Kim and colleagues, “Distinct cortical areas
associated with native and second languages.” Nature 388 (1997): 171-174; D.
Perani and colleagues, “The bilingual brain: Proficiency and age of acquisition of
the second language.” Brain 121 (1998): 1841-1852; M Shalinsky. L. Petitto and
colleagues, Near-infrared spectroscopy: shedding light on the neural signature of
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bilingualism. Poster presented at the Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting,
Atlanta GA, October 2006.
94
Effects of experience on brain connectivity: reprint in L. Eliot (1999:28). (See
note for p. 45.)
95
A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as a tool for exploring bilingual lives”
(See note for p. 35. Also Chapter 8.)
95
Interdependence of reading: A. Cobo-Lewis, R. Eilers, B. Z. Pearson, & V.
Umbel, “Interdependence of Spanish and English knowledge in language and
literacy among bilingual children.” In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language
and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 118-134). Clevedon UK: Multilingual
Matters, 2002.
95
“Distributed” lexicon: D. K. Oller & B. Z. Pearson. “Assessing the effects of
bilingualism: A background.” In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and
literacy in bilingual children (pp. 3–21). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2002.
96
Werner Leopold, Speech development of a bilingual child: A linguist’s record (4
volumes). Evanston IL: Northwestern University Press, 1939-1949.
96
Influential article on language differentiation: V. Volterra & T. Taeschner, “The
acquisition and development of language by bilingual children.” Journal of Child
Language 5, 311-326.
97
“Bilingual is not two monolinguals”: F. Grosjean, “Neurolinguists, beware! The
bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person.” Brain and Language 36 (1989):
3-15.
97
Language mixing, “rich language stew”: Gupta (see Chapter 1, note for p. 4)
98
Code-switching as a skilled behavior: F. Genesee, J. Paradis & M. Crago (2004),
Dual language development and disorders. Chapter 5. (Baltimore: Paul Brookes,
2004).
98
Codeswitching illustration: S. Poplack, "Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish
y termino en español": Toward a typology of code-switching.” Linguistics 18: 7/8
(1980): 581-618.
98-9
Trigger word examples: M. Clyne, Dynamics of language contact. (NY:
Cambridge University Press, 2003).
100101
Developmental versus transfer errors: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, Chapter 6. (See
note for p. 98.)
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100
“American Tongues” video from the Center for New American Media. L. Alvarez
& A. Kolker, Directors, NY: CNAM, 1987.
100101
Roman Jakobson: H. Kucera, Roman Jakobson, 1983; Kissinger: Albright: (web,
Wikipedia, last accessed July 17, 2007)
101102
Older language learners faster: C. Snow & M. Hoefnagel-Hohle, “The critical
period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning.” Child
Development 49 (1978): 1114-1128.
102
Localizing sounds: L. Eliot (1999:244). See note for p. 45.
102103
Faster brain metabolism for young children/ Pruning connections between nerve
cells: A. Gopnik, A. Meltzoff, & P. Kuhl, The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains,
and how children learn. (NY: Wm Morrow, 1999), p. 186.
103
Creation of new connections between nerve cells: L. Eliot, (1999: 28). See note
for p. 45. Figure 6: J. L. Conel, The postnatal development of the human cerebral
cortex, volumes 1, 3, & 6. (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1939,
1947, & 1959).
104
Diffuse versus automatic brain activation: L. Eliot (1999:400-401). See note p.
63.
104105
Simon: J. Singleton & E. Newport, “When learners surpass their models: The
acquisition of American Sign Language from inconsistent input.” Cognitive
Psychology 49 (2004): 370-407.
106
Imprinting: K. Z. Lorenz, Evolution and the modification of behavior. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1965.
106
Critical period in songbirds: P. A. Marler, “Comparative approach to vocal
learning: Song development in white-crowned sparrows.” Journal of
Comparative & Physiological. Psychology 71 (1970): 1-25.
106107
Genie: R. Rymer, Genie: An abused child’s flight from silence. (NY: Harper
Collins, 1993). Also, “Secret of a Wild Child,” A NOVA Production by
WGBH/Boston, 1994.
107
Chelsea: S. Curtiss, “The independence and task-specificity of language.” In M.
Bornstein & J. Bruner (Eds.), Interaction in human development. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum, 1989.
107
Critical period for late signers: R. I. Mayberry and colleagues, “Linguistic ability
and early language exposure”. Nature, (2002): 417, 38.
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107108
Age for switching dominance: K. Kohnert, E. Bates & A. Hernandez, “Balancing
bilinguals: Lexical-semantic production and cognitive processing in children
learning Spanish and English.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research 42 (1999): 1400-1413. Also, K. Kohnert & E. Bates, “Balancing
bilinguals II: Lexical comprehension and cognitive processing in children
learning Spanish and English.” JSLHR, 45 (2002): 347-359.
108
Persian experiment: H. Jamshidiha & H. Marefat, “L1 Persian attrition.”
Linguistics Journal 1 (2006): 17-46.
108
Comparison of cortex size: K. Semendeferi, K., A. Lu, N. Schenker, & H.
Damasio, “Humans and great apes share a large frontal cortex.” Nature
Neuroscience 5 (2002):272-276.
108109
“Neoteny,”extended childhood in humans: S. J. Gould, "A Biological Homage to
Mickey Mouse." In The panda's thumb: More reflections in natural history.
(Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1980), 95-107.
109
Isabelle: reported in S. Pinker, The language instinct. (NY: Wm Morrow, 1994),
p. 292. (Reference to V. Tartter, Language processes. NY: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, 1986.)
109
Hemispherectomy: D. Caplan, Biological studies of mental processes. Cambridge
MA: MIT Press, 1980.
111
Age children get “intelligible”: Hart & Risley, 1999. (See note for p. 70)
111
Generative grammar: Chomsky, 1965. See note for p. 43.
111
Interdependence of language (LLBC, see note for p. 95)
112
How many words does a person know? D Crystal, Encyclopedia of the English
Language. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 123. See also
Future of Englishes.
113
Morphosyntax/ syntax versus lexicon, regular versus irregular past tense: S.
Pinker, The language instinct. (kinds of past tense: ) See note for p. 48.
114
Conscious versus subconscious language knowledge: Ellis, N. (ed.). Implicit and
Explicit Learning of Languages. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994).
115
“Critical mass”: V. C. Gathercole, “Monolingual and bilingual acquisition:
Learning different treatments of that-trace phenomena in English and Spanish.”
In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children
(pp. 220-254). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.
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115
Threshold, learning sequences: V. C. Gathercole, “Miami and North Wales, So
far and yet so near: A constructivist account of morphosyntactic development in
bilingual children.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism 10/3 (2007): 224-247.
116
Length of time for learning language: Cummins, see note for p. 64; Also: V.
Collier, (1995). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in Language
and Education, 1, 1-12. Collier, V. (1992). A synthesis of studies examining
long-term language minority student data on academic achievement. Bilingual
Research Journal, 16, 187-212.
116
How much time needed: 20% minimum: See Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedag &
Oller “Input factors in lexical learning of bilingual infants (ages 10 to 30
months).” Applied Psycholinguistics 18 (1997): 41-58; 30% minimum: J. Werker
and colleagues, “Bilingual speech processing in infants and adults.” In P.
McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy
through school age (pp. 1-18). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006.
116
Limit on number of languages: Ken Hale
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/hale.html; Charles Berlitz: C. Berlitz, Native
tongues. NY: Grosset & Dunlap, 1982.
116117
Polyglot savant: N. Smith and I. Tsimpli, The Mind of a Savant: Language
Learning and Modularity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995).
118
European Union language teaching models: see in Appendix.
118
Waldorf School movement: (See Chapter 8.)
Notes for Chapter 4.
123
A. De Houwer study on parent beliefs: “Environmental factors in early bilingual
development: The role of parental beliefs and attitudes.” In G. Extra & L.
Verhoeven (Eds.), Bilingualism and migration (pp. 75-95). Berlin: Mouton de
Gruytere, 1999.
124
Study in Papua New Guinea (in de Houwer 1999, p. 88): D. Kulick, Language
shift and cultural reproduction. Socialization, self and syncretism in a Papua New
Guinean village. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
125
Linguist-parents’ study of their own children: W. Leopold (see note for p. 96,
Chapter 3); M. Vihman, “Language differentiation by the bilingual infant.”
Journal of Child Language 12 (1985): 297-324; M. Schnitzer & E. Krasinski,
“The development of segmental phonological production in a bilingual child.”
Journal of Child Language 21 (1994): 585-622 and volume 23 (1996): 547-571;
M. Deuchar & S. Quay, Bilingual acquisition: Theoretical implications of a case
13
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study. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
125- Survey of “success” rates: S. Barron-Hauwaert, Language strategies for bilingual
126 families.(Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2004), p. 181. Also, A. De Houwer,
“Parental language input patterns and children’s bilingual use.” Applied
Psycholinguistics 28 (2007), 411–424. (includes references to several other
surveys.)
126
Role of input: A. de Houwer, “Home languages spoken in officially monolingual
Flanders: A survey.” In K. Bochmann, P. Nelde, & W. Wolck (Eds.), (pp. 71-87).
Methodology of Conflict Linguistics (St. Augustin, Asgard Verlag, 2003); Also: B.
Z. Pearson, S. Fernandez., V. Lewedag, & D. K. Oller. “Input factors in lexical
learning of bilingual infants (ages 10 to 30 months).” Applied Psycholinguistics 18
(1997): 41-58.
128
Parents' language patterns 84%: A. De Houwer,“Trilingual input and children’s
language use in trilingual families in Flanders.” In C. Hoffman & J. Ytsma (Eds.),
Trilingualism in family, school, & community (pp. 118-135). Clevedon UK:
Multilingual Matters, 2004. (p. 131).
128
More exposure for minority language: Pearson and colleagues, 1997, See note for
p. 116); M. Vihman and colleagues, “The onset of word form recognition in one
language and in two.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood bilingualism:
Research on infancy through school age (pp. 30-44). Clevedon UK: Multilingual
Matters, 2006. (p.42)
129
Attitude more important than skill in majority language: K. Hakuta & D.
D’Andrea. “Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in Mexican
background high-school students.” Applied Linguistics 13 (1992): 72-99. (p.91)
130
Downs Syndrome child learning language bilingually: Observed in University of
Miami Infant Vocalizations Study, 1990-1997, (Principal Investigator: D. K.
Oller).
131
Lack of advantage for cognates: V. M. Umbel, B. Z. Pearson, M. C. Fernandez, &
D. K. Oller, “Measuring bilingual children's receptive vocabularies.” Child
Development 63 (1992): 1012-1020; Also, B. Z. Pearson and colleagues, “Crosslanguage synonyms in the lexicons of bilingual infants: One language or two?”
Journal of Child Language 22 (1995): 345-368. Rates of recognizing cognates: B.
Hancin Bhatt & W. Nagy. “Lexical transfer and second language morphological
development.” Applied Psycholinguistics 15 (1994): 289-310.
132- U Miami language survey: See R. Eilers, B. Z. Pearson & A. Cobo-Lewis, “Social
133 factors in bilingual development.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff (Eds.), Childhood
bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 68-90). Clevedon UK:
Multilingual Matters, 2006.
14
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133- Saunders on siblings: 1988:67ff. See note for p. 7.
134
134
value of ethnic enclave: W. E. Lambert & D. M. Taylor, “Language in the lives of
ethnic minorities: Cuban-American families in Miami.” Applied Linguistics 17
(1996): 477-500.
134- Minority language used with parents' friends: Gathercole, 2005. (See note above
135 Chapter 1 for p. 12.)
135
School language more potent than home language: (reanalysis of data from
Language and literacy in bilingual children.) B. Z. Pearson, “Social factors in
childhood bilingualism in the United States.” Applied Psycholinguistics 28/3
(2007): 399-410.
135
Strength of English globally/ percent of Internet in English: D. Crystal, The
language revolution, chapter 3 “The role of the internet.” (Cambridge: Polity
Press, 2004) p. 87.
136
Percent of language speakers: Gordon, 2005 (reference in Chapter 1, note for p. 4).
136
Language shift in Miami masked by immigration: children of immigrants less
likely to be fluent: LLBC; Chapter ; R. Eilers, D. K. Oller & A. Cobo-Lewis,
“Bilingualism and cultural assimilation in Miami Hispanic children.” (Chapter 3).
In Oller & Eilers, LLBC (pp. 43-63). See note for p. 22.
137
% of families who switch strategies: Barron-Hauwaert (2004: 27). See note for p.
125.
138
M. Grammont, Observations sur le lengage des enfants (‘Óbservantions on
children’s language’). Paris: MelangesMeillet, 1902.
138
Deuchar argue for ML@H: See note for p. 125, discussion in Deuchar and Quay’s
Introduction.
138- Organization of curriculum (T&P): Elizabeth Howard & Donna Christian, “Two139 Way Immersion 101: Designing and Implementing a Two-Way Immersion
Education Program at the Elementary Level.” On-line at
http://www.cal.org/crede/pubs/edpractice/EPR9.htm (Last accessed 6/20/2007)
139
Gupta: “Ask a linguist FAQ” Linguistlist.com (See note for p. 4.)
140
Switching to MLP: Barron-Hauwert (2004:182). See note for p. 125.
140
Bilingual and monolingual mode: (also see note for p. 97)
15
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140
Time estimates for language exposure. See note in Chapter 3 for p.116.
141
Fathers less likely to learn ml:Barron-Hauwert p. 83 (fathers more likely to be
monolingual than mothers (50% versus ~2%): p. 82-83 p151 70% of parents use
the father’s language. See note for p. 125.
142
3-way conversation strategies: from Saunders (p. 57 ff). See note for p. 7.
143
Bilingual literature: See references in Chapter 8.
147
Also Saunders (see note for p. 7), Deuchar (see note for p. 125), and Jameelah
Muhammed, The global child. (Washington DC: BEE Books, 2003).
149- Code-switching spectrum: E. Lanza, “Language contact in bilingual two-year-olds
150 and code-switching: Language encounters of a different kind?” International
Journal of Bilingualism 1 (1997): 135-162.
150
I-messages: T. Gordon, Parent Effectiveness Training (PET): The no-lose
program for raising responsible children. NY: P.H. Wyden, 1970.
150- Children’s sensitivity to adult levels of code-mixing: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago:
151 pp. 104-105. (See note for p. 98.)
152
Preference for majority language: B. Z. Pearson & A. McGee, “Language choice
in Hispanic-background junior high school students in Miami: 1988 update.” In A.
Roca & J. Lipski (Eds.), Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. (Berlin: Mouton
de Gruytere, 1993). Also, Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Chapter 3. (see note for p. 22.)
153- Directions to au pair: Jane Merrill: p. 61-62. (See note for p. 5).
154
Chapter 5 Notes:
178- George Saunders book (see note for p. 7).
180
179/
212
Joshua Fishman: J. Fishman, Language loyalty in the United States; The
maintenance and perpetuation of non-English mother tongues by American ethnic
and religious groups. The Hague, Mouton, 1966.
180
American Sign Language (in Glossary)
185186
More time needed in minority language (see note for p. 128)
16
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192
Article on Liz Spelke: M. Talbot, “The baby lab.” New Yorker, September 4,
2006, p. 98.
192
Silent period: P. Tabors, (See note for p. 85.)
198199
Jane Merrill, chapter 9, “Language travel: Distant shores.” Bringing up baby
bilingual. (NY: Facts on File Inc., 1984).
201
Dual immersion programs (see CAL website in Appendix).
208
American schools in Latin America (See in Appendix)
213
Barron-Hauwaert’s survey: In Language strategies for bilingual families: The
one-parent-one-language approach. (Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2004).
Chapter 6 Notes:
page
222- Definition of SLI: Much of the information in this chapter comes from F.
Genesee, J. Paradis, & M. Crago, Dual language development and disorder: A
handbook on bilingualism and second language learning (Baltimore MD:
Brookes Publishing, 2004). SLI is defined in their glossary, p. 225 and their
Chapter 8 discusses assessment and intervention.
223
Definition of dyslexia: in glossary
223
Which language is spared in aphasia:a summary of research is found in F.
Grosjean, Life with two languages (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press,
1982), pp. 258-263.
224
Prior attitudes about bilingualism and SLI: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2004
especially p.21 and Chapter 8.
224
Incidence of SLI: L. Leonard, Children with specific language impairment.
(Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1998). Tomblin, Bruce, N. L. Records, P. R.
Buckwalter, X. Zhang, E. Smith, and M. O’Brien. M. “Prevalence of Specific
Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children.” Journal of Speech, Language,
and Hearing Research 40 (1997): 1245-1260.
225
Incidence of hearing disorders: American Speech Language and Hearing
Association website http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/ (accessed on
3/10/2007).
225
Quotation from Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, p. 212. (See note for p. 222).
17
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225
Definition of auditory neuropathy: see ASHA website referenced on this page.
225226
SLI in immersion students: M. Bruck, “The suitability of Early French Immersion
programs for the language disabled child,” Canadian Journal of Education, 3
(1978), pp. 51-72.
226
Impairment equivalent to monolinguals in both languages: Paradis, & Crago, F.
Genesee, & M. Rice, “French-English bilingual children with SLI: How do they
compare to with their monolingual peers,” Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Research, 36, (2003), pp. 113-127.
227
No measures normed on bilinguals: B. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development
in bilingual babies and toddlers,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 2,
(1998), pp. 347-372. Also, Genesee, Paradis, & Crago (2004), Chapter 8. (See
note for p. 222.)
227
Norms sensitive to bilingual development: E. D. Pena, V. Gutierrez-Clellen, A.
Iglesias, B. A. Goldstein, & L. M. Bedore. Bilingual English Spanish Assessment
(BESA). In development.
227
Norm for bilinguals according to amount of exposure: V. Gathercole,
(manuscript). Introduction to Welsh receptive vocabulary test for Welsh-English
bilinguals.
237
Speech therapy in one language versus in two: Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, p. 88.
(See note for p. 222.)
Chapter 7 Notes:
page
245- Early babbling: D. K. Oller, The emergence of the speech capacity. Mahwah NJ:
246
Erlbaum, 2000.
245246
CDI: L. Fenson and colleagues, Users Guide and Technical Manual for
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories: 2nd edition.
Baltimore: Paul Brookes, 2003. Information on international forms:
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/cdi/adaptations.htm
246
First Words Project: at Florida State University, Amy Wetherby, Ph.D. Director;
http://firstwords.fsu.edu/
246
Canonical babbling as a warning sign: D. K. Oller, R. E. Eilers, A. R. Neal, A.
B. Cobo-Lewis, “Late onset canonical babbling: A possible early marker of
abnormal development.” American Journal on Mental Retardation 103 (1998):
249 -263.
18
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246
Bilingual babbling: D. K. Oller and colleagues, “Development of precursors to
speech in infants exposed to two languages.” Journal of Child Language 27
(1997): 407-25.
246247
Age of first words: CDI; Miami Infant Study, B. Z. Pearson, S. Fernandez & D.
K. Oller, “Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: Comparison to
monolingual norms.” Language Learning 43 (1993): 93-120; A. Doyle, M.
Champagne & N. Segalowitz, “Some issues in the assessment of linguistic
consequences of early bilingualism.” Working Papers on Bilingualism 14 (1977):
21-30; L. Petitto and colleagues, “Bilingual signed and spoken language
acquisition from birth: Implications for the mechanisms underlying early
bilingual language acquisition.” Journal of Child Language 28 (2001): 453-496.
247
Age of first grammar: CDI reference (See note for p. 63) and Genesee, Paradis, &
Crago, see note for p. 222).
247
Hamburg project: J. Meisel, Bilingual first language acquisition: French and
German grammatical development. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994).
248
Ways to test babies: K. Karmiloff & A. Karmiloff-Smith. Pathways to language:
From fetus to adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001.
248
Telling unfamiliar language: C. Moon and colleagues, “Two-day-olds prefer their
native language.” Infant Behavior and Development 16 (1993): 495-500. T.
Nazzi and colleagues, “Language discrimination by newborns: Toward an
understanding of the role of rhythm.” Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Performance 24/3 (1998): 756-66.
248
Distinguishing languages in the same rhythmic class: T. Nazzi and colleagues,
“Language discrimination by English-learning 5-month-olds: Effects of rhythm
and familiarity.” Journal of Memory and Language 43 (2000): 1-19.
248
Bilingual infants recognizing both languages: J. Werker and colleagues,
“Bilingual speech processing in infants and adults.” In P. McCardle & E. Hoff
(Eds.), Childhood bilingualism: Research on infancy through school age (pp. 118). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006.
248249
Learning not to be universal listener: J. Werker & R. C. Tees, “The organization
and reorganization of human speech perception.” Annual Review of Neuroscience
15 (1992): 377-402.
249
Catalan-Spanish bilinguals: N. Sebastian-Galles & L. Bosch, “On-line processing
of native and non-native phonemic contrasts in early bilinguals. Cognition 72
(1999): 111-23. Canadian experiment: T.C. Burns, J. Werker, & K. McVie,
“Development of phonetic categories in infants raised in bilingual and
monolingual environments.” In B. Beachley and colleagues (Eds.), Proceedings
19
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of the 27th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp.
173-184). Somerville MA: Cascadilla Press, 2003.
250251
Monolinguals using similar phonemes in word learning: J. Werker and
colleagues, “Infants’ ability to learn phonetically similar words: Effects of age
and vocabulary size.” Infancy 3 (2002): 1-30.
250
Effects of developing dominance: Burns and colleagues, see note for p. 249.
250251
Bilinguals using similar phonemes in word learning: C. Fennell & J. Werker,
Bilingual infants’ attention to fine phonetic detail in a word learning task. Paper
presented at the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, April 2003, Tempe
AZ.
252253
Phonological assessment at 36-months: A. M. Navarro, B. Z. Pearson, A. B.
Cobo-Lewis, & D.K. Oller. Assessment of phonological development in bilingual
children at age 36 months: Comparison to monolinguals in each language. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Speech Language and Hearing
Association, Orlando FL, December 1995.
253254
Language intelligibility: A. Navarro, “Phonetic effects of the ambient language in
early speech : Comparisons of monolingual- and bilingual-learning children.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 1998. Also: Navarro, A., Pearson, B. Z., CoboLewis, A.B., & Oller, D. K. (2005). “Differentiation in early phonological
adaptation?” In J. Cohen, K. McAlister, K. Rolstad, & J. MacSwan (Eds.) ISB4:
Proceedings of the 4 th International Symposium on Bilingualism (pp.16901702). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
254
Reference to CDI (See note for p. 63.)
255256
Lexical spurt in two languages: B. Z. Pearson & S. Fernandez, “Patterns of
interaction in the lexical development in two languages of bilingual infants.”
Language Learning 44 (1994): 617-653.
256
Cross-linguistic study of first words: B. Boysson-Bardies & M. Vihman,
“Adaptation to language: Evidence from babbling and first words in four
languages.” Language 67 (1991): 297-319.
256260
Bilingual lexical development generally: B. Z. Pearson, “Assessing lexical
development in bilingual infants and toddlers.” International Journal of
Bilingualism 2 (1998): 347-372.
261
J. Bruner on narrative development: Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1986.
262
world-wide study of narrative: R. Berman & D. Slobin, Relating events in
20
Pearson 2008/ RBC
narrative. (Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum, 1994).
262
Studies of multilingual narratives: S. Stromqvist & L. Verhoeven (Eds.), Relating
events in narrative: Typological and contextual perspectives. Mahwah NJ:
Erlbaum, 2004. Also Verhoeven & Stromqvist (Eds.), Narrative development in a
multilingual context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
262
bilingual frog story study: B. Z. Pearson, “Narrative competence in bilingual
school children in Miami.” In Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in
bilingual children (pp. 135-174). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.
263
incidence of dyslexia: American Speech Language and Hearing Association
website http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/LBLD.htm (last accessed on
July 1, 2007).
263
Reading in two languages better: A. B. Cobo-Lewis, B.Z. Pearson, R.E. Eilers, &
V.C. Umbel, “Chapter 4: Effects of bilingualism and bilingual education on oral
and written English skills: A multifactor study of standardized test outcomes.” In
Oller & Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (chapter 4, pp.
64-97). Clevedon UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002.
265267
Effect of home and school language on standardized scores: D. K. Oller & R. E.
Eilers, Language and literacy in bilingual children. (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters, 2002); B. Z. Pearson, “Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the
United States.” Applied Psycholinguistics, 28/3 (2007): 399-410.
267
English versus Spanish preschool: L. Wong-Fillmore, “When learning a second
language means losing a first.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 6 (1991):
323-346.
269
Additive vs subtractive bilingualism: W. Lambert, “Effects of bilingualism on the
individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences.” In P.A. Hornby (Ed.),
Bilingualism: Psychological, social, and educational implications (pp. 15-28).
NY: Academic Press, 1977.
270
How much time in English: Cummins, see note p. 85-86. Also see note for p. 116.
270
1st language hastens the 2nd: Cummins, J. (1981). “The role of primary language
development in promoting educational success for language minority students.”
In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Los
Angeles: California State University; Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment
Center. Also: Genesee, F. Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion
and bilingual education. New York: Newbury House, 1987.
271273
K. Hakuta & D. D'Andrea, “Some properties of bilingual maintenance and loss in
Mexican background high-school students.” Applied Linguistics 13 (1992): 72-99
21
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(graph on page 81).
274
more balanced comparisons between mono- and bi-linguals: K. Hakuta, The
mirror of language. NY: Basic Books, 1986.
274275
SES effect on standardized scores: A. Nairn and colleagues, The reign of ETS:
The corporation that makes up minds.(s.n. 1980).
276
E. Peal & W. Lambert, “The relation of bilingualism to intelligence.”
Psychological Monographs 76 (1962).
276277
SAT study: B. Z. Pearson, “Predictive validity of the SAT-Verbal scores for highachieving Hispanic college students.” Hispanic Journal of the Behavioral
Sciences 15 (1993): 342-56.
277278
No measures normed on bilinguals: B. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development
in bilingual babies and toddlers,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 2,
(1998), pp. 347-372. Also, F. Genesee, J. Paradis & M. Crago (2004), Dual
language development and disorders. Chapter 8. (Baltimore: Paul Brookes,
2004).
278279
All children have some singlets: V. C. Umbel and colleagues, “Measuring
bilingual children’s receptive vocabularies,” Child Development 63 (1992): 101220. Also, B.Z. Pearson, “Assessing lexical development in bilingual babies and
toddlers.” International Journal of Bilingualism 2 (1998): 347-72.
279
Profile effect: D. K. Oller, B. Z. Pearson, & A. B. Cobo-Lewis, “Profile effects in
early bilingual language and literacy.” Applied Psycholinguistics, 28/2 (2007):
191-230.
281282
Critical mass: V. C. Gathercole, “Monolingual and bilingual acquisition:
Learning different treatments of that-trace phenomena in English and Spanish.”
D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp.
220-254). (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2002).
282
Types of errors, from insufficient exposure: V. C. Gathercole & E. M. Thomas,
“Input factors influencing the acquisition of Welsh.” In J. Cohen and colleagues,
Proceedings of the ISB4 (pp. 852-874). Somerville MA: Cascadilla Press, 2005.
Notes for Chapter 8.
page
288
289
Waldorf schools on language: R. Steiner, The Genius of Language, (Herndon
VA: Anthroposophic Press, 1919-1920).
Waldorf Association contact information: Rudolf Steiner Library, 65 Fern Hill
22
Pearson 2008/ RBC
Road Ghent, N.Y. 12075 (rsteinerlibrary@taconic.net).
289
Modern writers on Waldorf: M. Glockler & W. Goebel, A guide to child health,
(Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2003), p. 265.
290
No studies of bilingualism in a social science framework: A. Pavlenko, Emotions
and multilingualism, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
291
Quotation from Einar Haugen: E. Haugen, “The stigmata of bilingualism,” In
A.Dil (Ed.), The Ecology of Language, Essays by Einar Haugen. Stanford:
Stanford University Press.
291
Source of monolingual myth: G. Steiner, Errata: An examined life, (New Haven
CT: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 102-3.
291292/
295
G. Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of language and translation (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1992).
292
Pause fillers in different languages: see Linguistlist archive, volume 2-675,
October 17, 1991. on talking speed: F. Pellegrino, J. Farinas, J-L. Rovas,
“Automatic estimation of speaking rate in multilingual spontaneous speech.”
from Speech Prosody 2004, March 23-26, 2004,Nara, Japan. (http://www.iscaspeech.org/archive/sp2004/spo4-517.pdf)
292
Cultural frame switches: N. Ramírez-Esparza, S. D. Gosling,V. Benet-Martínez,
J. P. Potter, J. W. Pennebaker, “Do bilinguals have two personalities? A special
case of cultural frame switching,” Journal of Research in Personality, 40 (2006),
pp. 99–120.
293
Irish poet: N. Ni Dhomhnaill, “Linguistic ecology: Preventing a great loss,” in I.
de Courtivron, Lives in Translation (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 79-92.
293
Bilingual anthologies: I. de Courtivron (Ed.), Lives in Translation:Bilingual
Writers on Identity and Creativity, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). Also, D.
Sommer (Ed.),Bilingual Games, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
293
I. Stavans, “Love affair with Spanglish,” in I. de Courtivron, Lives in
Translation, pp. 129-146. A. Dorfman, “The wandering bigamists of language,”
(pp.29-38) (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
293294
Authorities on the bilingual mind: A. Wierzbicka, “Universal human concepts as
a tool for exploring bilingual lives,” International Journal of Bilingualism, 9 (1)
(2005), pp. 7-26.
294
Quotation, none regrets bilingualism: I. de Courtivron, p. 2. (See note for p.
23
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293.)
294
Bilingual memoir: E. Hoffman, Lost in translation, (NY: Dutton, 1989).
294
Bilingual P.S.: E. Hoffman, “P.S.,” in I. de Courtivron, pp. 49-54. (See note for
p. 293.)
294295
Japanese bilingual writer: Y. Tawada, “Writing in the web of words,” in I. de
Courtivron, pp. 147-156. (See note for p. 293.)
January 26, 2008
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