Cross-cultural communication
in practice –
Interpreters and practitioners working together
across cultures and languages
Beverley Costa
Mothertongue multi-ethnic counselling service
www.mothertongue.org.uk
Outline
Why are we interested in this?
• Bilingualism and the effects it has on emotional
development
• Language switching as :
Defence
Expression
Protection
• Learning from bilingual and multilingual counsellors
Understanding the untranslatable
“Every language contains its
own naïve picture of the
world including its own
ethnopsychology”
( Apresjan, 1974)
• Abstract words for emotions, concepts, and
values vary across languages
• Translating them into the English language
reflects the concepts and values of the Englishspeaking culture
• Concepts exist in some cultures and not others
• For example, how would you translate “date
rape”, “ you are not in trouble”, you are having a
hard time” etc. ?
The communication – direct and
indirect model (Edward T. Hall, 1966)
Individual world view : Coping Strategies
Assertiveness, expressing emotions, goal orientated, confrontational,
Individual world view: Communication Style
direct communication style – verbal communication mainly
Collective world view - Coping Strategies
Avoidance, forebearance,social support,
Collective world view: Communication style
indirect communication style – context important
Hofstede’s (1983) Intercultural elements
•
Individualist cultures include the United States and much of Western Europe, where personal achievements are
emphasised. Collectivist cultures, such as China, Korea, and Japan, emphasize the group such as the family and at
work this manifests in a strong work group mentality.
•
A person's identity revolves around the "I"
. Personal goals and achievement are strived for
. It is acceptable to pursue individual goals at the expense of others
. 'Individualism' is encouraged whether it be personality, clothes or music tastes
. The right of the individual reign supreme; thus laws to protect choices and freedom of speech
•
In a country that scores low on the individualism scale the following traits are common:
. "We" is more important that "I"
. Conformity is expected and perceived positively.
. Individual's desires and aspirations should be curbed if necessary for the good of the group.
. The rights of the family (or for the common good) are more important.
. Rules provide stability, order, obedience.
•
Marian and Kaushanskaya (2005: 1479) suggest from their research that:
“...when speaking a language associated with a more individualistic culture, bilinguals produce more individualistic
narratives, whereas when speaking a language associated with a more collectivist culture, bilinguals produce more
collectivist narratives, regardless of language of encoding or main agent in the narrative.”
IMPACT/ADAPTATION OF CBT?
Clinical example
• George and Vasso Vassilou (1973) refer to the cultural constructs that
we may have as: “subjective culture”. They give an example of an
American psychodramatist conducting a psychodrama workshop in
Athens. The psychodramatist set up an example of a mother who was
twice divorced and ready to marry again who was bringing her
unhappy daughter for psychotherapy. No one in the group was willing
to take the part of the mother. Initially interpreting this as resistance in
the group, the psychodramatist was finally persuaded by the group that
the idea of such a Greek mother was unthinkable as such a mother
would be dishonouring the family with her loose morals. There was no
possible warm up by the group members to the role of this mother as
the psychodramatist had not developed enough cultural empathy with
the world view of the group and had missed the meaning they were
ascribing to the role.
Berry’s (1998, 2001) model of
acculturation
Separation may occur when people place a high value on
maintaining their own culture without any external
influence and low value on the culture they have migrated
to.
Assimilation may occur when people place high value
only or mainly on the new culture to which they have
migrated.
Marginalisation may occur when people feel alienated
both from their heritage culture and the culture in which
they are living.
Integration occurs when people find a way to integrate,
incorporate and live out their varying experiences of
culture.
Splitting that can occur in
bi/multilingualism
“When we change languages, both our
worldview and our identities get
transformed. We need to become new
selves to speak a language that does
not come from our core self, a language
that does not reflect our innerconnectedness with the culture it
represents.”
A client’s view
It is very hard to a person who leaves
everything, his country, language, food,
clothes, people, and family we know
that if they haven’t got problem they
would never leave them because these
things can be the loved once ever in
their life but unfortunately they have to,
to save their life and live calmly
• “As an immigrant…. familiarity with the official
language, that immensely valuable and
essential tool of communication, has been a
determining factor in the process of
acculturation.”
• Imberti P. Exploring and understanding the
Language Experience of the Non- EnglishSpeaking Immigrant. Families in Society: The
Journal of Contemporary Social Services;
2007: 71
Native language and emotions
• Learning a language early promotes
heightened emotionality of native language
compared to additional language because:
–
Family context of learning
–
First language learning co-evolves with emotional
regulation systems
–
Native language has greater connections with
subcortical brain structures which mediate arousal
(including amygdala-mediated learning)
The neurobiological
perspective
• The amygdala judge emotion expressed in
voices very fast
• They are the brain’s emotional sentinel
• The prefrontal lobes( the decision-taking
centres) control the amygdala and can
reduce emotional intensity by allowing the
individual to reappraise a situation and adapt
their reaction(LeDoux,2002)
• The autonomic nervous system responds to
signs of threat by preparing the body to take
action – hence sweating of hands etc.
• Skin conductance experiments ( compare lie
detectors) can measure the transient , time
specific increase in the skin’s electrical
conductivity so it can be linked to a specific
stimulus e.g. the language in which a word is
spoken – results show that specific
languages ( L1 or LX) can be experienced as
highly emotional Catherine Harris(2006 ) When is a First Language More
Emotional? Bilingual Minds , Anna Pavlenko Publisher: Multilingual Matters Ltd
• “bilingual self” with an internal life, which is
comprised of “a delicate duet of voices
emanating from two different symbolic
worlds.”
• Perez Foster, R (1996). The bilingual self:
duet in two voices. Psychoanalytic Dialogues
3:69-121.
• “doubleness” experienced by bilinguals : “that
of a neither/nor identity, rather than a
both/and identity, which had also been
referenced as “ outsider-ness” in each of her
contexts.”
• “ adults …constructed their multi/bilingualism
as advantageous, creative, even radical.”
• Burck, C. (2004). Living in several
languages: implications for therapy; Journal
of Family Therapy; 26(p323)
• “cultural borderlands”
Rosaldo R. Culture and truth: The remaking of
social analysis. Boston Beacon Press; 1989
defined as:
• “the overlapping zones of difference and
similarity within and between different
cultures. Borderlands give rise to internal
inconsistencies and conflicts, but also offer
many potential points of human
connectedness with others.” Falicov C.J.
Training to Think Culturally: A
multidimensional Comparative Framework in
An example of the split – in values
•
•
•
•
•
“- Should you marry him? The question comes in English
-Yes.
Should you marry him? The question echoes in Polish.
-No…
Should you become a pianist? The question comes in
English.
• -No you mustn’t. You can’t.
• -Should you become a pianist? The question echoes in
Polish.
• -Yes, you must. At all costs.” Hoffman (1989)
Integrating Factors
• Finding a point of balance and integration
• Including integration of experiences of migration and
tensions of straddling cultures.
• Using more than one language in a session can
reinforce this sense of accommodation of tensions
between differences.
• “In some cases when clients can’t find any similar
words in English they may use phrases or words from
their language which I may not be able to understand
but allows them to express the emotion.”
• Moving between languages can validate and
incorporate original culture and the country in which
one lives.
DEFENCE
Not all therapists regard the ability to switch
languages in therapy as necessarily
positive
• Kraph, E. E. (1955) considered that the
choice of the languages to work in (for
polyglot clients) was not always
therapeutically beneficial – the client
might choose the language that caused
the least amount of emotional arousal.
Client (L1 Greek, L2 English)
self report
“I think when I talk about emotional topics I
tend to code-switch to English a lot. I
remember when I was seeing a psychologist
in Greece for a while I kept code-switching
from Greek to English. We never really
talked about this ( …) To my mind it may
have been some distancing strategy…. (JM
Dewaele, 2010)
Emotional Expression
• “Sometimes the acquisition of a new language can
provide a person with the “right expression” for a
particular sentiment, and thus can be used as a
coping mechanism to express emotionally loaded
experiences. ……a second language served as a
vehicle to become more self regulated by finding
ways to verbalise feelings that were once censored
or restricted by external forces”
• Imberti P. Exploring and understanding the Language
Experience of the Non- English- Speaking Immigrant.
Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary
Social Services; 2007: 71
• Loss or gain?
Jean Marc Dewaele’s research
participants:
Estela, Romanian L1, German L2, French L3, English
L4, Italian L5
“Romanian is more appropriate for hurting and insulting
because it carries more weight and I can distinguish
more nuances”
Maureen, English L1, Italian L2
“I prefer to express my anger in Italian because I do not
hear the weight of my words so everything comes out
quite easily. Which unfortunately means I probably
hurt people more than I intend to!”
Protective function of second
/subsequent language
• A language learned after the early childhood
years can serve as a protective psychic
defence, de Zulueta, F. (1984,1990).
• It can help clients to talk about traumatic
events. If, for example, trauma happened in
one language an individual may be able to
talk about it in one of their other languages
with a lessening of the emotional intensity,
which makes it bearable.
Language in which trauma is recalled
• The Tehrani, N. & Vaughan,S. (2009) article: Lost in translationusing bilingual differences to increase emotional mastery
following bullying. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research.
Vol.9. No.1, explores the use of language switching in a
bilingual client in order to increase emotional mastery after a
traumatic experience:
• “…where an individual is equally fluent in two languages the
most significant factor in increasing the quality and emotional
content of the recall is the language and context in which the
incident was encoded.” p.11
• strategic use of bilingual identity for « repair »
• Separate processing areas keep the intensity
of feelings in one language separate from the
experience of retelling the events in the other
language.
• This is partly explained by reference to
Dufour and Kroll’s (1995) identification of two
separate language stores in the brain for first
and other languages.
·
Code switching and using more than
one language
• Maltese colleague, Maud Muscat works with
bilingual children therapeutically
• Choice of language at any given time – or
language switching – a useful diagnostic tool
in understanding a child’s anxieties/coping
strategies
• “ At times it is just a word, which can make all
the difference. At other times adolescents and
children find it easier to express themselves
in one of the languages and not the other… it
can express deeper emotions, can indicate
the type of social background, communication
carried out at home/school etc.”
Significance and Meaning beyond the
words
• Counsellors who were interviewed talked about the
importance in therapy of being able to see meaning
beyond the spoken words of the client when there is
a language barrier. The spoken word is not taken for
granted as the sole carrier of meaning.
• “Once past this (initial) stage, we move to a deeper
level where language just serves the purpose of
getting the meaning”
“I have found that mostly they (clients) can be very
eloquent even when they don’t know the words.”
“Initially…I was very focused on the meanings of the
words. Now…I am learning to read and see between
lines of words.”
Some practical suggestions
1.Think about what language proficiency means to your
client. These questions may be useful initial prompts
in an assessment session with clients:
• What have their experiences of learning a new
language been like?
• What does the proficiency in the language represent
for them?
• What do they think they might gain in achieving
proficiency in the new language?
• What might they lose in the process?
• In which language is it easier to get angry /express
affection /be professional?
2.
3.
Think about the way in which you use English.
Think about other languages. In some languages
there is no pronoun for the word “I”. What impact
might that have on psychological formulations?
Consider issues of power in the communication.
Does the therapist speaks the language used in
therapy better or worse than the client?
What about accent?
Are the therapist and /or the client speaking in the
language of an oppressive coloniser and if so, what
are the implications for the therapeutic alliance?
4. Learn a language, or reflect on experiences of trying
to learn a language and impact on e.g.: your
sense of identity, your self esteem, your
understanding of others.
Professor Jean- Marc Dewaele quotes a language
teacher’s comments on the lack of confidence we
have in Britain about learning languages:
“I think that people still view learning other languages
with a sense of fear. There seems to be this
mystique about learning languages and many
people decide early on in their lives that they can’t
do it.” Dewaele, J (2009).
IMPLICATIONS
• Increasingly, people are moving across
borders in pursuit of, for example, work,
safety and refuge. Many will have
experienced trauma.
• What is the potential impact on us all if we
decide not to think about the borders crossed
when people learn a new language?
• What is the potential impact on multilingual
clients if they are left unable to speak and to
be heard and understood?
Suggested reading
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Bradford, D.T. & Munoz. A. (1993) Translation in Bilingual Therapy in Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice. Vol24. No.1, 52-61
Bernardes,D.(et al.) (2010) Asylum Seekers’ Perspectives, International Journal of Migration,
Health and Social Care. Vol 6. Issue 4
Costa, B. When three is not a crowd. Professional preparation for interpreters working with
therapists, ITI Bulletin, January-February, 2011
Costa, B. Managing the demands of mental health interpreting: why training, supervision and
support are not luxuries, ITI Bulletin, March 2011
Muriel, P. & Smith, H.C. (2009) Talking Therapy in The Linguist. Vol48 No.2.The Chartered
Institute of Linguists
Perez Foster, R. (1998) The Power of Language in the Clinical Process: Assessing and treating the
bilingual person. New Jersey: Aronson
The Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture (2005) Code of Practice and Ethics for
Interpreters and Practitioners in Joint Work
Tribe, R. & Raval, H. (2003) Working with Interpreters in Mental Health. London: BrunnerRoutledge
Tribe, R. & Thompson, K. (2008) Working with Interpreters in Health Settings: Guidelines for
Psychologists. Leicester: The British Psychological Society
Tribe, R. & Thompson, K. (2009a) Opportunity for Development or Necessary Nuisance? The Case
for Viewing Working with Interpreters as a Bonus in Therapeutic Work in International Journal of
Migration, Health and Social Care. Vol5. Issue 2
Tribe, R. & Thompson, K. (2009) Exploring the Three-Way Relationship in Therapeutic Work with
Interpreters in International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care. Vol5. Issue 2
Some more suggestions for reading
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Imberti, P. (2007) Exploring and understanding the Language Experience of the Non- EnglishSpeaking Immigrant. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services; 2007: 71
Rosaldo, R. (1989) Culture and truth: The remaking of social analysis. Boston Beacon Press
Falicov, C.J.(1995) Training to Think Culturally: A multidimensional Comparative Framework in
Family Process New York Costa B.. Psychodrama across Cultures. British Psychodrama and
Sociodrama Journal; 2002
Lyons, J.(1981) Language, Meaning and Context. Fontana PaperbacksSmith H.C. Bridging the gap:
therapy through interpreters in Therapy Today July 2008
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and Society. Cambridge, Mass Harvard University Press
Costa B. A working model of a community based, culturally sensitive counselling service, in
Psychotherapy and Culture by Zack Eleftheriadou, Karnac Books 2010
Burck, C. (2004). Living in several languages: implications for therapy. Journal of Family Therapy,
26, 314-339.
Burck, C. (2005). Multilingual Living: Explorations of Language and Subjectivity. London: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Vertovec, S. (2007) Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and racial studies 30 (6) p:10241054
De Maesschalck, S. (2012) Linguistic and cultural diversity in the consulting room: A tango between
physicians and their ethnic minority patients. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Ghent University.
Research on therapy across languages at this link:
http://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/CostaDewaele%20%282012%29.pdf
Other references from this paper not in the text
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Schrauf, R.W. (2000). Bilingual autobiographical memory: Experimental studies and clinical cases. Culture &
Psychology, 6(4), 387-417
Harris ,C. (2006 ) When is a First Language More Emotional? Bilingual Minds , Anna Pavlenko Publisher:
Multilingual Matters Ltd
Panayiotou, A. (2004). Switching codes, switching code: Bilinguals’ emotional responses in English and
Greek. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25:2&3, 124-139
Kanavillil Rajagopalan Emotion and Language Politics: The BrazilianCase Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development Vol. 25, Iss. 2-3, 2004
Karamat Ali, R. (2004), Bilingualism and systemic psychotherapy: some formulations and explorations. Journal of
Family Therapy, 26: 340–357. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6427.2004.00288.x a)
Amati-Mehler, J. Argentieri, S. & Canestri, J. (1993). The Babel of the Unconscious, Mother Tongue and Foreign
Tradition. Madison: International Universities Press.
Perez Foster, R. (1996). The bilingual self: duet in two voices. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 3, 69-121.
Bowker, P., & Richards, B. (2004). Speaking the Same Language? Psychodynamic Practice, 10, 4, 459-478.
LeDoux , J.E. (2002) Synaptic Self: How our brains become who we are. New York: Viking.
Apresjan, J. D. (1974) Regular polysemy. Linguistics 14 (2):5-32
Hoffman, E.(1989).Lost in translation: A life in a new language. New York: Penguin Books.
Kraph, E. E. (1955) “The choice of language in polyglot psychoanalysis.” Psychoanalytic Quarterly 24:343-357
Dewaele, J. (2009). “Age effects on self-perceived communicative competence and language choice among adult
multilinguals.” Eurosla (9) John Benjamins Publishing Company ,245-268
Dewaele, J.-M. (2010) Emotions in Multiple Languages. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
De Zulueta,F. ( 1984) "The implications of Bilingualism in the study and treatment of psychiatric disorders: A
Review", Psychological Medicine 14:541- 57.
De Zulueta,F. (1990) "Bilingualism and Family Therapy", Journal of Family Therapy 12: 255-65.
Dufour,R & Kroll,J.F. (1995) “Matching words to concepts in two languages: A test concept mediation model og
bilingual memory.” Memory and Cognition, 23 (2), 166-180.
Costa, B. (2010) Mother tongue or non-native language? Learning from conversations with bilingual/multilingual
therapists about working with clients who do not share their native language , Journal of Ethnicity and Inequalities in
Health and Social Care , 3:1: 15-24
Costa, B. & Dewaele, J.M. (2012) Psychotherapy across Languages: beliefs, attitudes and practices of monolingual