Marek Degórski
Institute Geography and Spatial Organization
Polish Academy of Sciences
Warsaw, Poland
Influence of traffic into the environment properties and human
Introduction
Heavy traffic and congestion is just cause people to waste time and also damages the
environment as well. There are some types of pollution caused by traffic: air, water, soil
pollution and noise too. Air pollution is the more harmful of the other. Some of the offending
substances are carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and heavy metals. Often,
the resulting traffic jams look like an ecological disaster.
The aim of the presentation is to show some relationships between traffic and
environment properties on the example of case study from Poland. The study reaches two
conclusions counter to accepted transportation theory. First, the high speed appears to be safer
for environment and human well being than the lower one. Second, at least expressway
quality of the road is influencing for the environmental property too. Humans are affected by
their environment. Anything they are exposed to can have health repercussions that range
from mild afflictions to dangerous consequences. Traffic impact into the some environmental
components as i.e. water or soil has crucial influence for the human existential conditions.
Human well being – role of ecosystem services in
Irrespective of the level of development of civilisation and the human perception of its
causal relations to the potential of natural environment, the latter has played, plays now and
shall continue to play an enormous role in the context of the socio-economic, cultural and
existential development, especially with respect to local communities. Very frequently in the
many regions, taking shape under the influence of a rapid inflow of population, as well as
rapid develop of transportation and motorization differentiated as to the perspectives on the
problems of the environment, local communities of these areas form their preferences an
adopt behaviour patterns that are different from those typical for both the urban and rural
areas. In the urban system the ecosystems of greenery and surface waters (street greenery,
parks, urban woods, meadows, lakes, water flows) provide very important services for the
local resident community. Among such services we can mention purification of the air,
regulation of the micro-climatic conditions, reduction of noise levels, retaining of
precipitation, purification of wastewater, formation of proper conditions for recreation and
leisure. Ecosystem services are perceived somewhat differently within the rural areas.
Agricultural ecosystems are being actively transformed by people with the aim of maximising
or optimising the production of alimentary, pseudo-alimentary, non-alimentary and indirectly
alimentary plants. Yet, the multi-functionality of the agricultural ecosystems and provision by
them of the ecological services, are essential for the improvement of water regime and water
supply, as well as for the alleviation of climate changes (Zhang et al., 2007; Degórski, 2010).
Still, the most important service, rendered by the agricultural ecosystems is the circulation of
matter and energy, allowing for production of food, that is – for the satisfaction of the basic
existential needs of people.
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The already mentioned multi-functionality of rural-urban areas and disappearance of
the leading functions causes that a specific perception develops within these areas of the
ecosystem services. This might be partly attributed to the development of areas featuring high
natural potential. The behaviour patterns evolving make very clearly apparent the care for the
quality of life of all inhabitants, as well as of the entire local community. This local
community frequently sees the improvement of their standard of living in the raising of
quality of the environment and landscape (Fig. 1).
Healthy
ecosystem
Healthy
society
Higher quality of life
Human well being
Fig. 1. Relationship between healthy ecosystems and human well being
Multi-functionality of the environment with respect to human life is also being registered in
an increasing number of documents of the European Union. In the Millennium Ecosystems
(2005), a report concerning the assessment of ecosystems in terms of, in particular, betterment
of human living conditions, attention is paid to four basic functions that the ecosystems fulfil
in our lives, providing definite services for people:
- the existential ones, of fundamental character, among which the circulation of matter and
energy is mentioned, emergence of the soil cover, respiration, photosynthesis, etc., that is –
the essential processes, decisive for life on the Earth;
- the alimentary ones, that is – decisive for the supply of food, water and raw materials for
people;
- the regulatory ones, influencing the quality and the dynamics of climatic conditions, water
conditions (droughts, floods), or forming the buffer conditions with respect to the spread of
epidemics or pandemics;
- the cultural ones, yielding recreation, spiritual, educational etc. benefits.
Transportation, very often, is in conflict with healthy environment and spatial continuum of
ecosystems.
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Development of motorization
The last decades have experienced a growing level of motorization, as reflected by the
production of automobiles. More them 80% of the world's automobiles are used in developed
countries, but the share of developing countries is growing rapidly. Although car production
has a behavior linked with economic cycles of growth and recession, there is a continuous
growth of the fleet with an annual car production of about 34-40 million vehicles in the 1990s
and well above 40 million in the 2000s (Rodrigue et al. 2009). There were over 640 million
registered automobiles in circulation in 2008, an increase of close to 2000 millions since
1991. This takes into consideration cars that are put out of circulation each year. Globally,
there are on average 12 people for every car in circulation. A significant share of the growth
of car production is attributed to the motorization of developing countries, especially in East
and Southeast Asia. In 2003, more than 2 million cars were sold in China alone and this figure
exploded to more than 9 million in 2008 (Fig. 2).
Source: US Department of Energy, Transportation Energy Data Book
Fig. 2. Increasing of car production and registrations in the period 1965-2008 (after (Rodrigue
et al. 2009).
Also in Poland is very strong increasing numbers of road vehicles. During the period 20002009 total amount of road vehicles has growed about 64%, from 14,1 mln in 2000 to 22,1 mln
items in 2009. Particularly, the highest increasing was visible for the trucks (67,1%) and
private cars (60,6%).
Transport impact on the environmental conditions
In the literature we can find many examples of impacts of transport on the environment relate
to climate change, air quality, noise, water quality, soil quality, biodiversity, land take and
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others components of environment. Some of them are characterized at the Geography of
Transport Systems (Rodrigue et al. 2009).
Climate conditions
First of all transportation is very strong connected with air properties. The activities of
the transport industry release several million tons of gases each year into the atmosphere.
These include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2; not a pollutant),
methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon tetraflouride (SF6), benzene and volatile components (BTX),
heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper and cadmium) and particulate matters (ash, dust). There is
an ongoing debate to what extent these emissions may be linked to climate change and the
role of anthropogenic factors. Some of these gases, particularly nitrous oxide, also participate
in depleting the stratospheric ozone (O3) layer which naturally screens the earth’s surface
from ultraviolet radiation. Vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft are the sources
of pollution in the form of gas and particulate matters emissions that affects air quality
causing damage to human health. Toxic air pollutants are associated with cancer,
cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological diseases. Carbon monoxide (CO) when inhale
affects bloodstream, reduces the availability of oxygen and can be extremely harmful to
public health. An emission of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transportation sources reduces
lung function, affects the respiratory immune defense system and increases the risk of
respiratory problems. The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in
the atmosphere form various acidic compounds that when mixed in cloud water creates acid
rain. Acid precipitation has detrimental effects on the built environment, reduces agricultural
crop yields and causes forest decline. The reduction of natural visibility by smog has a
number of adverse impacts on the quality of life and the attractiveness of tourist sites.
Particulate emissions in the form of dust emanating from vehicle exhaust as well as from nonexhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion have an impact on air quality. The physical
and chemical properties of particulates are associated with health risks such as respiratory
problems, skin irritations, eyes inflammations, blood clotting and various types of allergies
(Rodrigue et al. 2009).
.
Improvement of the sanitary condition of the air in Poland
Technological restructuring of the Polish industrial space had a very positive impact on
the sanitary condition of the air. Increasing of transportation give only local foot prints into
the environment. The analyses of the air pollution conditions, conducted in the framework of
the National Monitoring of the Environment, indicate that during the recent years the
concentrations of SO2, NO2, CO and the BS dust (suspended dust particles according to the
reflectometric measurements) are, as a rule, low, much lower than the admissible values. The
cases of exceeding the admissible values are either not registered at all or, their occurrence,
registered infrequently, is of local character, limited to the areas exposed to the direct impact
from the emission sources of the monitored pollutants. With respect to NO2, CO, as well as
benzene and plumb, the areas featuring increased concentrations (sometimes exceeding the
admissible values) are the ones situated in the direct vicinity of roads, mainly of the urban
roads with high traffic intensity. The tendencies in the changes of pollution concentrations
show, however, a decrease of the respective values, this being a very positive phenomenon,
taking into account the initial sanitary state of the atmosphere at the beginning of the
transformation period. The dynamics of changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases is
shown in Fig. 3.
4
methane
carbon dioxide
2500
380000
370000
2000
360000
340000
gigagrams
gigagrams
350000
330000
320000
1500
1000
310000
300000
500
290000
280000
0
270000
1990
1995
2000
2005
1990
2009
1995
2000
2005
2009
years
years
nitrous
140
120
gigagrams
100
80
60
40
20
0
1990
1995
2000
2005
2009
years
Fig. 3. Total emissions of some of the greenhouse gases (on the basis of data from the Central
Statistical Office, GUS)
A commonly appearing type of pollution, whose concentration in the air remains still
quite high, and frequently exceeds the admissible values, especially in towns, is suspended
dust. Occurrence of high concentrations concerns also ozone. These two types of pollution
constitute still an essential, unresolved problem over the majority of the territory of the
country.
A highly negative phenomenon, directly associated with the bad sanitary condition of
the air, is constituted by the persisting bad health condition of a part of Polish forest
resources. Even though during the period of transformation the sanitary condition of the
forests underwent a significant improvement – similarly as the parameters of air quality – and
the share of area, occupied by the healthy forests, increased, the degree of damage of the
Polish forests is still among the highest in Europe. The stands, affected by average and high
defoliation, do still constitute around 16% of Polish forests (2008). The level of damage of
forests in 2009, established on the basis of assessment of defoliation on the permanent
observation plots, maintained by the Department of Forest Monitoring of the Forest Research
Institute (as reported by Hildebrand, Wawrzoniak et al., 2010), is shown in Fig. 4.
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Fig. 4. Damage levels in the forests in 2009 on the basis of assessment of defoliation at the
permanent observation plots, with distinction of 5% intervals of defoliation (after
Wawrzoniak et al., 2010)
The highest concentration of the tree stands affected by defoliation is observed in the
South of Poland (the provinces of Silesia and Małopolska, as well as Subcarpathia –
especially in the counties of the former province of Krosno), but also in the provinces of
Lublin, Lodz, Cuiavia-Pomerania and Masovia. On the other hand, much healthier tree stands
are found in the North-eastern and North-western Poland (the provinces of Podlasie, Western
Pomerania, Pomerania and Lubusza). In the recent years, however, a tendency became visible
of decreasing differentiation between the health status of the forests of northern and southern
Poland, brought about by the improvement of health of the forests in the southern part of our
country.
Acoustic climate
Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds. It is traumatizing
for the hearing organ and that may affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing
character. Long term exposure to noise levels above 75 dB seriously hampers hearing and
affects human physical and psychological wellbeing. Transport noise emanating from the
movement of transport vehicles and the operations of ports, airports and railyards affects
human health, through an increase in the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Increasing noise
levels have a negative impact on the urban environment reflected in falling land values and
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loss of productive land uses (Rodrigue et al. 2009). In Poland more them 40% of population
declare that they are living in very noisily environment. Mostly, the reason of this situation is
transport impact, particularly in urban and periurban areas (Degórski 2008).
Water quality.
Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical and
other hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks and trains or from port and
airport terminal operations, such as de-icing, can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and
oceans. Because demand for shipping services is increasing, marine transport emissions
represent the most important segment of water quality inventory of the transportation sector.
The main effects of marine transport operations on water quality predominantly arise from
dredging, waste, ballast waters and oil spills. Dredging is the process of deepening harbor
channels by removing sediments from the bed of a body of water. Dredging is essential to
create and maintain sufficient water depth for shipping operations and port accessibility.
Dredging activities have a two-fold negative impact on the marine environment. They modify
the hydrology by creating turbidity that can affect the marine biological diversity. The
contaminated sediments and water raised by dredging require spoil disposal sites and
decontamination techniques. Waste generated by the operations of vessels at sea or at ports
cause serious environmental problems, since they can contain a very high level of bacteria
that can be hazardous for public health as well as marine ecosystems when discharged in
waters. Besides, various types of garbage containing metals and plastic are not easily
biodegradable. They can persist on the sea surface for long periods of time and can be a
serious impediment for maritime navigation in inland waterways and at sea and affecting as
well berthing operations. Ballast waters are required to control ship’s stability and draught
and to modify their center of gravity in relation to cargo carried and the variance in weight
distribution. Ballast waters acquired in a region may contain invasive aquatic species that,
when discharged in another region may thrive in a new marine environment and disrupt the
natural marine ecosystem. There are about 100 non-indigenous species recorded in the Baltic
Sea. Invasive species have resulted in major changes in nearshore ecosystems, especially in
coastal lagoons and inlets. Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are one of the most
serious problems of pollution from maritime transport activities (Rodrigue et al. 2009).
Soil quality.
The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and soil
contamination. Coastal transport facilities have significant impacts on soil erosion. Shipping
activities are modifying the scale and scope of wave actions leading to serious damage in
confined channels such as river banks. The removal of earth’s surface for highway
construction or lessening surface grades for port and airport developments have led to
important lost of fertile and productive soils. Soil contamination can occur through the use of
toxic materials by the transport industry. Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed
on road sides and enter the soil. Chemicals used for the preservation of railroad ties may enter
into the soil. Hazardous materials and heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to
railroads, ports and airports (Rodrigue et al. 2009).
In Poland, contamination of soils has only local character. Places most polluted are
located nearly emission points, that is around heavy industry places and very close highways.
Totally, the share polluted soils in the total area of agriculture soils is very low, and take out
less the 5% (Fig. 5).
7
99.8
99.6
% of agriculture land
99.4
99.2
99.0
98.8
98.6
98.4
98.2
98.0
97.8
Pb
Zn
Cu
Ni
Cd
Source: Ochrona Środowiska 2010
Fig. 5. Soil contamination by heavy metals in Poland.
Biodiversity and fragmentation of environment
Transportation also influences natural vegetation. The need for construction materials
and the development of land-based transportation has led to deforestation. Many transport
routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and driving-out water plant
species. The need to maintain road and rail right-of-way or to stabilize slope along transport
facilities has resulted in restricting growth of certain plants or has produced changes in plants
with the introduction of new species different from those which originally grew in the areas.
Many animal species are becoming extinct as a result of changes in their natural habitats and
reduction of ranges.
Fig. 6. Ecological network of Poland, ecological corridors and biocentra.
Land use change has caused natural ecosystems to become more fragmented. This has
significant, largely negative implications for their native biodiversity, through the effects on
species of area reduction, edge exposure and isolation of remaining ecosystem patches, as
well as through interruption of ecosystem processes and associated ecosystem degradation.
Ecosystem fragmentation and its ecological effects are therefore significant drivers of
biodiversity loss. Forests are the ecosystem type for which measurement of spatial changes in
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extent and configuration is most feasible and for which there is the greatest body of research
to aid in interpreting the significance of changes.
Fragmentation of the land, particularly crossing points between ecological corridors
and road system is in every country crucial points in spatial management. In Poland this
problem is very significant, because recently a lot of new highways is under processing of
construction (Fig. 6).
Land take.
Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. The development of
port and airport infrastructure is significant features of the urban and peri-urban built
environment. Social and economic cohesion can be severed when new transport facilities such
as elevated train and highway structures cut across an existing urban community. Arteries or
transport terminals can define urban borders and produce segregation. Major transport
facilities can affect the quality of urban life by creating physical barriers, increasing noise
levels, generating odors, reducing urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage (Rodrigue et
al. 2009).
Conclusion
The short analysis which was presented show that traffic impact into the some
environmental components as i.e. water or soil has local character in Poland. Independently
from the local influence of traffic into environment we have to take into consideration this
impact for human well being existence.
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