Report
Winter-time pollution and
winter smog problems in
Budapest, 2001
Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy
Central European University
November 24, 2003
Contents
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUMMER AND WINTER DISTRIBUTION OF POLLUTANTS IN
BUDAPEST ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
WHICH PARTS OF THE CITY SUFFER THE WORST LEVELS OF POLLUTION IN WINTER TIME
AND WHY ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SO2 AND DUST CONCENTRATIONS IN BUDAPEST ........................... 1
ANALYSIS OF THE AIR POLLUTION LEVELS FOR THE WEEKENDS AND HOLIDAYS AND FOR
THE WHOLE WINTER PERIOD 2001. ............................................................................................................ 4
INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS ...................................................................................... 5
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
ANNEX ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
The report was prepared by:
Gasparishvili Ilya
Hristov Iordan
Hasanli Pari
Jeges Daniel
Manukyan Arman
Novikov Viktor
Savcov Arina
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
1
Introduction
Sulfur dioxide. This substance belongs to the family of sulfur oxide gases (SOx). These gases
dissolve easily in water. Sulfur is prevalent in all raw materials, including crude oil, coal, and
ore that contains common metals like aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron. SOx gases are
formed when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is
extracted from oil, or metals are extracted from ore. SO2 dissolves in water vapor to form
acid, and interacts with other gases and particles in the air to form sulfates and other products
that can be harmful to people and their environment.
Over 65% of SO2 released to the air, or more than 13 million tons per year, comes from
electric utilities, especially those that burn coal. Other sources of SO2 are industrial facilities
that derive their products from raw materials like metallic ore, coal, and crude oil, or that burn
coal or oil to produce process heat. Examples are petroleum refineries, cement manufacturing,
and metal processing facilities. In addition, locomotives, large ships, and some non-road
diesel equipment currently burn high sulfur fuel and release SO2 emissions to the air in large
quantities.
Health and environmental impacts of SO2. SO2 causes a variety of health and environmental
impacts because of the way it reacts with other substances in the air. Particularly sensitive
groups include people with asthma who are active outdoors and children, the elderly, and
people with heart or lung disease. Peak levels of SO2 in the air can cause temporary breathing
difficulty for people with asthma who are active outdoors. Longer-term exposures to high
levels of SO2 gas and particles cause respiratory illness and aggravate existing heart disease.
SO2 reacts with other chemicals in the air to form tiny sulfate particles. When these are
breathed, they gather in the lungs and are associated with increased respiratory symptoms and
disease, difficulty in breathing, and premature death.
Visibility impairment. Haze occurs when light is scattered or absorbed by particles and gases
in the air. Sulfate particles are the major cause of reduced visibility in many parts of the U.S.,
including our national parks
Acid rain. SO2 and nitrogen oxides react with other substances in the air to form acids, which
fall to earth as rain, fog, snow, or dry particles. Some may be carried by the wind for hundreds
of miles. Acid rain damages forests and crops, changes the makeup of soil, and makes lakes
and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish. Continued exposure over long time changes the
natural variety of plants and animals in an ecosystem. SO2 accelerates the decay of building
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
2
materials and paints, including irreplaceable monuments, statues, and sculptures that are part
of our nation's cultural heritage.
Chapter I
Difference between summer and winter distribution of pollutants in
Budapest
The results from comparing the average concentrations of SO2 measured at different stations
in winter and summer seasons show that winter concentrations exceed the summer values
from 7% at the Kostolanyi measuring station, to 52% – at the Csepel measuring station. The
highest concentration of SO2 in the winter season 2001 was observed at the Kobanya
measuring station – 34 m/m3 fig fill in the common report (see Annex slide 8).
The average dust concentrations per station in winter period exceeded the summer values
from 3% – at the Kostolanyi measuring station to 35% – at the Kobanya measuring station.
The highest concentration of dust in winter 2001 was observed at the Baross measuring
station – 63 m/m3 (see Annex slide 9).
The results from comparing the average daily values of SO2 in Budapest for the same period
show that the concentrations in the summer season varied between 10 and 30 m/m3 and
between 20 and 51 m/m3 in the winter season (see Annex slide 10). The results from
comparing the average daily values of dust in Budapest show that most of the concentrations
in the summer season are between 20 and 60 m/m3 and between 0 and 121 m/m3 in the
winter season (see annex slide 11). According to the Hungarian regulations, the threshold
value for 24 hours average concentration is 150 m/m3 for SO2, and 100 m/m3 for dust. Four
of the measured dust concentrations exceed the limits of the Hungarian legislation.
One of the possible reasons for such seasonal variation in the concentrations of SO2 and dust
is the temperature inversion (Baumbach 1996). A cold layer of air is positioned in the
atmosphere and creates a “lid”, which does not allow the air to circulate. The conditions
within the layer are stable, which promote stagnation of pollutants. In the summer season, this
“lid” is on a higher altitude than in the winter season (see Annex slide 12). (Baumbach 1996).
Consequently, the concentration of pollutants in the summer season can circulate easier and
“dissolve” on a wider area than during the winter-time.
During the summer, the average temperature is higher and the ground is heated. As a result of
that thermal radiation, the air raises high in the atmosphere and the concentrations “dissolve”
(Baumbach 1996). In the winter season the temperatures are much lower and the ground can
not release its heat.
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
3
Chapter II
Which parts of the city suffer the worst levels of pollution in winter
time and why
To show which area of Budapest is more polluted two approaches are going to be used.
First approach is to compare SO2 values from “Allami Nepegeszsegugyi es Tisztiorvosi
Szolgalat Budapest Fovarosi Intezete“ (ANTSBFI). Compared values are D24 av., D24 Max
and D30 Max for every winter month. Data were ranged and a place with highest value got 8
points and with lowest value got 1 point, after doing this with all 3 groups of data ranging
points are summed and sum is presented in the last row of table 1.
Table 1. Ranging of SO2 indices by D24 av., D24 Max and D30 Max value
name/place D24 av. D24 Max. D30 Max
sum
csepel
7
8
7
22
ilosvaj
6
7
8
21
kobanja
8
6
6
20
erzsebet
5
5
5
15
kosztolanyi
4
4
3
11
baross
3
3
4
10
szena
2
2
1
5
laborc
1
1
2
4
According to this we can say that more polluted areas are Csepel, Ilosvaj and Kobanya and
the less polluted area is Szena and Laborc. In graphical presentation we can see that we can
group measuring places in 3 groups. Csepel, Ilosvaj and Kobanya like most polluted (22-20
points), Szena and Laborc (5-4 points) and Erzsebet, Kosztolanyi and Baross (15-10 points)
(see Annex slide 15).
Second approach is data distribution. All measured SO2 values (D24 av., D24 Max. and D30
Max) from ANTSBFI tables for winter months are ranged in eight groups. According to
presence in interval (Table 2) and points (Table 3) we got results which are presented in Table
4. Results in table 4 are sum of presence multiplied with point numbers.
Table 2. Distribution of SO2 by D24 av.
range/name laborc szena csepel baross kosztolanyi erzsebet
10-17
10
26
2
46
8
6
18-25
14
27
8
7
43
28
26-33
32
31
20
4
54
25
34-41
25
4
40
5
4
33
42-49
2
1
13
2
1
4
50-57
3
0
1
1
0
0
58-65
0
0
0
1
0
2
66-74
0
0
0
0
0
0
If we give significance to every interval according to this table.
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
kobanja
0
25
39
14
5
3
2
0
ilosvaj
0
30
28
9
2
1
0
2
4
Gradation of stations by SO2 distribution (sum numbpoint)
Table 3
Table 4
range
point
name
points
10-17
1
ilosvaj
365
18-25
2
csepel
319
26-33
3
kobanja
280
34-41
4
laborc
276
42-49
5
erzsebet
270
50-57
6
kosztolanyi
225
58-65
7
szena
204
66-74
8
baross
115
Now we can split areas in 2 groups more polluted leaded with Ilosvaj, (Csepel, Kobanya,
Laborc and Erzsebet) and less (Kosztolanyi, Szena and Baross) where Baross is in the best
position.
If we change the way that we group significant (Table 5) because the distribution then again
we got very similar results.
Table 6
Table 5
range
10-17
18-25
26-33
34-41
42-49
50-57
58-65
66-74
points
223
178
163
161
154
135
132
84
point
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
name
ilosvaj
csepel
kobanja
laborc
erzsebet
kosztolanyi
szena
baross
If we compare Table 4 and table 6 than even with different grouping we have same position of
measuring places. More polluted Ilosvaj, Csepel, Kobanya, Laborc and Erzsebet and less
polluted Kosztolanyi, Szena and Baross. This distribution can be seen in Table 7.
Table 7. Gradation of stations by SO2 indexes
name
ilosvaj
csepel
kobanja
laborc
erzsebet
kosztolanyi
szena
baross
points
365
319
280
276
270
225
204
115
points
223
178
163
161
154
135
132
84
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
name
ilosvaj
csepel
kobanja
laborc
erzsebet
kosztolanyi
szena
baross
5
For some days do not exist data to see what kind of impact has it on the measuring places
ranging points from table are divided by the number of days for which we have significant
data.
Table 8. Coefficients
name
ilosvaj
csepel
kobanja
laborc
erzsebet
kosztolanyi
szena
baross
points 1
365
319
280
276
270
225
204
115
points 2
name
koef 1
koef 2
223
ilosvaj
3.924731 2.397849
178
csepel
3.666667 2.045977
163
kobanja 3.181818 1.852273
161
laborc
3.032967 1.769231
154
erzsebet
3
1.711111
135
kosztolanyi 2.419355 1.451613
132
szena
2.193548 1.419355
84
baross
1.825397 1.333333
days
93
87
88
91
90
93
93
63
In table 8 we can see that koef 1 which is equal to points 1/days have same ranging like when
we ranged by points and that koef 2 which is equal to points 2/days have same ranging like
when we ranged by points 2. Therefore, we can say that presented data significant.
According to this, we can say that most polluted areas are Ilosvaj, Csepel, Kobanya, Laborc
and Erzsebet. The main reason for this is wind direction and power plant distribution.
Chapter III
Spatial distribution of SO2 and dust concentrations in Budapest
It is well known that air pollution and its consequences are considered as one of the major
environmental threats for human beings and ecosystems (WHO 2000).
The objective of this paper was to analyze the spatial distribution of the major air pollutants,
such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (dust) over the territory of Budapest with a
special emphasis on winter period of the year 2001.
Our results may suggest that air pollution (SO2 and dust) in Budapest in winter tends to occur
in more evident and severe forms than in summer. Residents of Csepel, Baross, Kobanya, and
Ilosvay areas are especially vulnerable to pollution. Particulate matter concentration levels are
high in winter, with some episodes of severe air pollution. Transportation, power plants and
industries appear to be the major pollution sources.
Budapest is the largest urban territory of the Hungarian Republic with large number of
transport, industries, and households. Therefore, the risk of air pollution here is supposedly
high. About 600,000 tons of air pollutants are emitted in Budapest annually, nearly threequarters of which are contributed by motor vehicles (MoE 2001).
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
1
It is recognized that both natural and anthropogenic factors can affect the distribution of air
pollutants. These factors include, but are not limited to, the intensity and type of sources of
anthropogenic emissions, meteorological conditions and local topography.
In view of the fact that a hilly landscape with few industries occurs in the west (Buda), and a
flat urban area with many industrial factories dominates lower elevations in the east (Pest), the
city is highly susceptible to temperature inversions and is sometimes covered in a blanket of
smog. In winter, under favorable meteorological conditions, sulfurous smog can be observed
in the Pest side (Horvath 2001). The presence of particulate matter appears to aggravate the
impact of SO2 pollution (EPA 1994).
The Hungarian regulations set the following border values to protect human health against the
harmful effects of sulfur dioxide:

Daily exposure: < 150 µg/m3 (D24)

Short period exposure: < 250 µg/m3 30 minutes (D30)
The significant harm level, at which serious and widespread health effects occur to the general
population, is 1,000 µg/m3 of SO2 (EPA 1994).
The Hungarian air quality standards for particulate matter to protect public health with an
adequate margin of safety are:

Daily exposure: < 100 µg/m3 (D24)

Short period exposure: < 200 µg/m3 30 minutes (D30)
The significant harm level, at which serious and widespread health effects occur to the general
population, is 600 µg/m3 of particulate matter (EPA 1994).
Observational data for SO2 and particulate matter were taken from the network of NTSZ
monitoring stations and analyzed to get an overall picture of air pollution distribution. Figure
1 shows the location of monitoring stations and potential pollution sources in Budapest (see
the Annex). The list of stations and short description of their surroundings is given below:
1 - Laborc (Residential area with one-storeyed buildings)
2 - Szena (High traffic area in Buda)
3 - Csepel (Production area)
4 - Baross (High traffic area in Pest)
5 - Kosztolanyi (Small production area)
6 - Erzsebet (Central bus station in the high-traffic area)
7 - Kobanya (Residential area with multi-storeyed buildings)
8 – Ilosvay (Residential area with intense traffic and complex buildings)
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
2
It should be mentioned that several other harmful substances, such as tropospheric ozone,
NOx, carbohydrates, and CO contribute to the local air pollution effect. Therefore, it is
important to take into consideration the generalized picture of air pollution. The most severe
air pollution is observed in the Budapest downtown with some extension of strong air
pollution to the major industrial zones and high-traffic areas (see the Annex) (Pomratcz et al.
2002). The western part of the city does not suffer from air pollution as much as the southeastern part mainly because of its favorable geographical position, larger green areas, and
lower concentration of pollution sources.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is formed when fuel containing sulfur
(mainly coal and oil) is burned. In the cold spell, increased SO2 emissions and SO2
concentrations in the atmospheric air can be observed in Budapest mainly due to intense
operation of heat power plants and coal burning in residential sector.
It is known that high concentrations of sulfur dioxide may cause breathing difficulties to
people exposed to it. People suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease may be
especially susceptible to the adverse effects of sulfur dioxide (EPA 1994). Therefore, it is
important to trace SO2 concentrations and take appropriate mitigation measures.
The analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of SO2 in Budapest shows a general tendency
towards less intensive air pollution in summertime and more intensive in wintertime.
Maximum air pollution in the summer 2001 was registered in the Budapest downtown (see
Annex slide 23); in contrast, in the winter 2001, the Pest residential area (left bank of the
Danube River) was mostly susceptible to high SO2 concentrations (see Annex slide 24).
In winter, the average concentrations of SO2 were as much as 1.5 times higher than in
summer. Therefore, our research was focused on the winter season. The most polluted zones
were high-traffic areas in the Pest (Szena, Baross) and the Kobanya residential area. The Buda
hills and other territories located in the west were less polluted. It is likely that stationary
burning of fossil fuels was the major contributor to SO2 pollution.
In the winter 2001, the episodes of maximum D24 (24 hours) and D30 (30 minutes) sulfur
dioxide pollution mainly occurred in the urban districts around stations # 3, #7 and #8
(Csepel, Kobanya, and Ilosvay, respectively) located in the south-east of Budapest (see the
Annex). These are urban regions with high concentration of motor vehicles, power plants,
industries and households. However, no dangerous levels of SO2 concentration were reported
during the winter 2001 (except one case in December 2001 for station # 8).
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
3
Particulate matter (dust) pollution. Particulate matter is solid matter or liquid droplets from
smoke, dust, or condensing vapors that can be suspended in the air for long periods of time.
Particulate matter mainly results from fuel combustion. The carbon-based particles emitted
from incomplete burning of diesel fuel in buses (e.g. Ikarus), trucks and cars are of particular
concern.
The effects of particulate matter on human health include breathing and respiratory
symptoms, aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and damage to lung
tissue. Groups that appear to be most sensitive to the effects of particulate matter pollution
include individuals with chronic lung or cardiovascular disease, asthmatics, elderly people,
and children (EPA 1994).
People living in areas with high particulate matter and SO2 levels have a higher incidence of
respiratory illnesses and symptoms than people living in areas without such a synergistic
combination of pollutants (EPA 1994).
Chapter IV
Analysis of the air pollution levels for the weekends and holidays
and for the whole winter period 2001.
Urban air pollution mainly relies on the activity of city dwellers. Lowering of this activity
therefore assumes lowering of the levels of pollution. For the cities two main factors of air
pollution are transport and industry. If there are no special weather conditions, we can expect
a decrease in air pollution on weekends and holidays when there is a decrease in human
activity.
In our case to check this hypothesis, we can use a method of comparing average level of
pollution for the winter period 2001 and average level of pollution on weekends and holidays
for the same period. To get a visual picture and to make it more comprehensive to analyze
data we can create graphs drawing levels of pollution for each month. The trends can show if
there are any changes in levels of pollution on weekdays and holidays.
Because we have data only for year 2001, we are assuming winter period as January, February
and December 2001. The analysis is provided for all stations (see Annex, slides 34-39).
In January the average SO2 pollution is 26 ug/m3; average pollution on weekends and
holidays is 27 ug/m3; average dust pollution is 46 ug/m3; average dust pollution on weekends
and holidays is 45 ug/m3.
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
4
In February the average SO2 pollution is 28 ug/m3; average pollution on weekends and
holidays is 31 ug/m3; average dust pollution is 38 ug/m3; average pollution on weekends and
holidays is 41 ug/m3.
In December the average SO2 pollution is 31 ug/m3; pollution on weekends and holidays is 30
ug/m3; average dust pollution is 55 ug/m3; average pollution on weekends and holidays is 45
ug/m3.
Therefore average SO2 pollution for winter period 2003 is 28 ug/m3; average pollution on
weekends and holidays is 29 hg/m3; average dust pollution for winter period is 46 ug/m 3; dust
pollution on weekends and holidays is 44 ug/m3.
Table 1. Average value of air pollutants for winter period 2001 and average value of air
pollutants for weekends and holidays for this period summarized for all stations
Pollutant value
SO2 ug/m3
(average)
SO2 ug/m3
(weekends & holidays)
Dust ug/m3
(average)
Dust ug/m3
(weekends & holidays)
Month
Season
January
February
December
Winter
26
28
31
28
27
31
30
29
46
38
55
46
45
41
45
44
Analysis shows that there are no significant changes in levels of air pollution with SO2 and
dust on weekends and holidays during winter period 2001. There is a small increase in SO2 air
pollution on weekends and holidays, but it can not be considered as an obvious increase due
to the possible statistical errors. We can also mention a small decrease in dust pollution on
weekends and holidays for the same period, but it also can not be considered as an obvious
decrease due to the same reasons. Therefore in our case we can not accept the hypothesis that
the levels of air pollution are getting lower on weekends and holidays.
Chapter V
Influence of meteorological factors
Available data suggest that the southeast area of Budapest is most susceptible to particulate
matter pollution. Pollution intensity in wintertime is greater comparing to one in summertime
(see the Annex). Maximum dust pollution in the winter 2001 was observed in the center of
Budapest (st. #4), and the Kobanya residential area (st. #7). Another areas with increased
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
5
concentrations of dust were the Csepel industrial zone (st. #3) and the Ilosvay residential area.
Smaller, but still significant concentrations of dust were observed in the Buda side. It is likely
that the major anthropogenic sources of particulate matter emissions in BP were
transportation, heat power plants and industries.
It should be mentioned that in the winter of 2001, the episodes of maximum D24 (24 hours)
and D30 (30 minutes) dust pollution were severe and sometimes exceeded established
thresholds. They mainly occurred in the urban areas near stations #3, #4, #7 and #8 (Csepel,
Baross, Kobanya, and Ilosvay, respectively) located in the center and southeast of Budapest
(see the Annex). In several districts of Budapest, maximum observed concentrations of dust
exceeded allowable limits by factor two and even more.
The current screening estimation of air pollution in Budapest makes use of a set of generic
meteorological data providing a rough estimate of air concentrations. The data include wind
speed and directions measured at one height and location and only in the two horizontal
directions, temperature measurements at about 1.3 m, site-specific data on SO2 and dust
concentrations, synoptic wind speed, and moisture. Data on cloud cover, precipitation and
atmospheric pressure ere not available. Provided the topographical peculiarities of Budapest
area a rough estimate of meteorological influence on air concentrations using the box model
for air pollution modeling was made (Harrison & Perry, 1986).
The extent of dispersion and dilution depends on wind speed, turbulence, mixing depth and
urban topography. Pollution concentrations in Budapest vary considerably from day to day
and from season to season. This is partly explained by inverse relation between concentrations
and wind-speed, which doesn’t suffer large seasonal fluctuations but shows significant
differences in daily values. Greater surface roughness, due to buildings, generally acts to
increase turbulence, and hence enhance dispersion. The hilly Buda terrain can differ
substantially the wind speeds and direction within short distances (Patrick, 1994).
Prevailing winds in Budapest are in the north-west (NW), north-north-west (NNW), north
(N), east (E), and east-east-south (EES), where the sums of all wind speeds are maximum (see
Annex, slides 42, 43). The remaining directions are dominated by low wind speeds, which
result in stable atmospheric conditions. As a consequence, during the periods of light winds,
the air effectively stagnates close to the ground, especially in location such as street canyons.
(Urban Air quality in the UK, 1993).
The Buda hills may cause the so called katabatic (downward) in the night and anabatic
(upward) air movements (Harrison & Perry, 1986). This can lead to additional mixing within
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
6
of air masses in the morning, breaking up the fog, but in the case of insufficient mixing of air
streams with different temperature – to additional pollution in the S and SE directions.
Though the principal effect of the increased turbulence is to reduce ground level
concentrations, sometimes it has the opposite effect for elevated point sources, such as
individual chimney stacks, as the increased turbulence brings the plume down to ground more
rapidly, giving rise to higher concentrations ((Urban Air quality in the UK, 1993). In stable
atmospheric conditions elevated plumes originated from high stacks undergo limited
dispersion until they reach the hills.
Light winds, stable atmospheric conditions and low mixing heights (typical temperature
inversions in urban areas are 100 to 200 m above the ground (Urban Air quality in the United
Kingdom, 1993)), conditions that occur during anticyclonic weather and mainly at night-time,
favor pollution episodes. During the day the temperature inversion is likely to break up as the
sun warms the ground. However, during the winter months, inversions can persist throughout
the day and survive for several days before breaking up. It is conditions such as those that
produced the smogs of the early part of this century and similar conditions were also
responsible for the air pollution in London in December 1991 (Urban Air quality in the UK,
1993).
Natural vegetation and trees are relatively efficient interceptors of gases and particles based
on specific surface areas, increasing SO2 dry deposition velocity (Schnoor, 1996). Thus the
Buda hills covered with a considerable amount of green areas represent a natural hindrance in
the way of polluted air streams. Dry deposition velocity generally increases with wind speed,
which is the case in the mentioned directions of higher wind speeds. Particularly in the N and
NNW direction the combination of the two factors leads to the formations of an effective
system of scavenging from particulate matter.
Wet depositions, when the pollutants are washed out by rain, snowfall or sleet, appears to the
extent these kinds of precipitation occur. The general the percentage of moisture in the
atmosphere is higher in the winter season, which gives rise to the rate of aerosol absorption,
and to the formation of fogs. This is the case in winter to a much larger extent as higher
temperatures make for lower moisture composition in air.
It must be mentioned though, that the wind data is valid to a limited extent due to the situation
of the meteorological station in the proximity of the hills.
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
7
Conclusion
This report is a result of analyzing data from the Institute for Public Health for the 2001. Data
was presented for 8 local monitoring stations. The analysis was made for the SO2 and dust
pollutants for winter period 2001. Provided with data only for year 2001, we assumed winter
period as January, February and December 2001. The main results may be summarized as
following:
1) The SO2 concentrations in winter 2001 exceeded the summer values up to 52%;
2) The dust concentrations in winter 2001 exceeded the regulatory limits up to two times;
3) There were no significant changes in the levels of pollution on weekends and holidays in
winter 2001;
4) The most polluted area in winter 2001 was the Pest side: Csepel, Kobanya and Ilosvay.
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
8
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Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
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Annex
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
10