Impact of Pesticides and Other Chemicals on the Environment
Azhari Omer Abdelbagi1, Adam Ali Mohamed2Ahmed M. Elhindi3
and Ali Mohamed. Ali4
Introduction
Chemicals are becoming indispensable part in our daily life. They are related to our
nutrition, medicine, and use as pesticides, fertilizers, petrol, paints, cosmetics, glue,
varnish, artificial fibers,…etc. despite these enormous use and benefits of chemicals they
can cause and implicate some health and environmental problems. Examples of problems
associated with them they can cause diseases like cancer, kidney, endocrine disrupting,
and acute poisoning or cause environmental problems like ozone depleting, effect on
terrestrial and aquatic animals, contamination on environmental media (air, water, food,
land). All these are making clear to every one that “chemical safety – a national
challenge” is not an empty phrase.
Internationally big effort is made to safe use of chemicals which are reflected in Chapter
19 of Agenda 21 which identified the elements for the sound management of the
chemicals as: adequate legislation; information gathering and dissemination; capacity for
risk assessment; and interpretation; establishment of risks policy; capacity for
implementation and enforcement; capacity for rehabilitation of contaminated sites and
poisoned persons; effective education programmes and capacity to respond to
emergencies. Also legally binding instruments like Rotterdam Convention, Basle
Convention, and Vienna Convention are now ratified by many countries.
In Sudan chemicals are managed in a piecemeal fashion, with control being introduced
for specific group or class of chemicals and in specific area. For example pesticides are
managed by Pesticides and Plants Protection Act, drugs and cosmetics managed by
Pharmaceuticals and Poison Act, food and additives managed by Food Control Act. This
approach left large group of chemicals like fertilizers, industrial chemicals consumer
chemicals and environmental contaminants without any system of management. Sudan
not produce chemical but amount imported each year rapidly increasing.
Beside the loophole in the existing regulations and inadequate sectoral co-ordination and
collaboration, health and environment are threaten by the large quantity of obsolete and
stockpiles of pesticides and other chemicals that have been piled near residential area and
scattered all over the country. Also empty containers and contaminated soils (spillage,
and dumping sites) are another problems.
1
Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum or
Training Directorate, Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Sudan.
2 National Chemical Laborotary, Ministry of Health
3
National Centre for Research, Ministry of Science & Technology, Khartoum, Sudan.
4
Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
Pesticides
Background
Trials for use of pesticides in Sudan started with the introduction of Bordeaux mixture in
1941 followed by the chlorinated hydrocarbon DDT for the control of cotton jassid
(Jacobiasca lubica deBerg) in Gezira scheme in 1949. The success of the trial, which
started with a single application against a single major pest, initiated the interest for
expansion of the treated area and opens the way for subsequent introduction of other
related compounds. The early 1950s witnessed the introduction of the organophosphate
compounds, namely parathion. In the same decade and due to the outstanding increase in
cotton prices during the Korean War, many products were tested and released for
commercial use. Early in the sixties organophosphates became a reliable partner to the
organochlorines for the control of the complex of chewing and sucking insect pests, when
dimethoate was first used in 1960/61 season. The same decade witnessed the discovery of
a new generation of insecticides, the carbamates, as well as an intensive screening effort
to select the most suitable products from many brands and formulations available in the
market.
The period from early sixties to late seventies witnessed progressive intensification and
expansion in the cropped areas with subsequent increase in pest complexity and damage.
This necessitates increase in chemical treatment with negative impact on human health
and the environment. The number of applications during the season has also risen to
levels to average 9-11. Organochlorines were the major group of pesticides, which
flourished during this period favored by their high potency against wide range of
agricultural and public health pests, cheapness and environmental persistence.
The problems arising from the increased use of pesticides coupled with the drastic change
in the cotton pest complex led in the early 80s to the introduction of synthetic pyrethroids
in order to replace DDT and the insecticides mixtures containing DDT which, were then
banned.
Early in the 1990s the Sudan Government declared integrated pest management (IPM) as
its crop protection strategy and many attempts were made to reduce the use of pesticides
and rely more on non-chemical means of crop protection. Nevertheless, the use of
pesticides remains an important component of crop production policy, especially after the
introduction of a new generation of pesticides, which is claimed to have better biological
efficiency, less negative impact on the environment and more cost-effective performance,
thus complying with IPM objectives. Among these new products are the BT toxins, the
neonicotinoid imdacloprid, and the phenylpyrazole, fibronil. Currently there are over 600
products being registered for commercial use in the Sudan. However, only Limited
number of the registered compounds dominates the local import despite the huge number
of registered products. The desirability of certain products may be attributed to their
superior efficacy under local conditions, safety and cheapness.
The recent advancement in agrochemical industry with the tremendous efforts currently
focused on the use of genetically modified crops is a new challenge facing crop
protection policy in the Sudan which still stands fairly in the opposition of such
technology for many logical reasons.
Pesticide Regulation in the Sudan
Pesticides use in the Sudan was governed by the Pesticide Act / 1974 which was
amended to Pesticide and Pest Control Act / 1994. The Act regulates all activities related
to pesticides import, transport, storage, uses, formulation and any other related activities
in the country. These functions were executed by the National Pesticides Council (NPC).
The NPC is a multidisciplinary inter-ministerial committee, which includes
representatives of all stakeholders within the country including the Ministries of
Agriculture, Animal Resources, Health, Research Institutions, and Universities … etc.
The council is chaired by the Under Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture with the
Director General of the Plant Protection Directorate (PPD) as the repertoire and Registrar
of the Council. The Registrar is responsible for all administrative and executive functions
of the Council. According to this act subsidiary councils can be formed in the 26 states of
the Sudan. Similarly subsidiary central or regional, permanent or interim committees are
formed to assist in performing specific functions mandated by the council.
The 1994 Act is abroad general umbrella law with various explanations and specific
details, which may require periodical revisions, dealt with in seven relevant bylaws,
which are easy to amend on periodical terms as necessary. The last revision of these
bylaws was done in 2002. A list of these bylaws is given below;
 Trading and organization of the commercial handling of pesticides and pest
control products bylaw for the year 2002.
 Pesticides and pest control products inspection bylaw for the year2002.
 Organization of the storage and transport of pesticides and pest control products
bylaw for the year 2002.
 Protection of personnel dealing with pesticides and pest control products bylaw
for the year 2002.
 Importation of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002.
 Registration of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002.
 Formulation of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002.
The registration system of pesticides in the Sudan:
The registration of pesticides in Sudan can be summarized in the following points;
1. Applicants must first fill Form 1 for provisional registration and submit it to the
registrar of the NPC.
2. The NPC passes the form to the technical committee which reviews the
information given in the form according to the Pesticide and Pest Control
Act/1994 and either recommends to the NPC to reject or accept the provisional
registration of the pesticide.
3. Products approved for provisional registration shall be tested by relevant research
institutions under local conditions and results of the test shall be approved by the
National Pests and Diseases Committee (NPDC) which either recommends (or
rejects) to the NPC the registration of the product for commercial use using the
following measures;
 Method of testing should follow the approved protocol;
 Residues of the product(s) tested in edible crops and/or the environment
should be within acceptable limits (Codex Alimentarius).

Standard treatment(s) must be included in every field assay and the
standard should be an already registered product.
 Test products are only recommended if their biological performance is as
good as or better than that of the standard products.
4. The NPC reviews the recommendation of the NPDC and either approves it or
rejects.
The product is thus registered for commercial use
The pesticides market and use in various sectors
Pesticide industry represents a significant fraction of the international trade. Herbicides
constitute 44% of the manufactured pesticides while insecticides and fungicides
constitute 33% and 18%, respectively. Currently there are more than 600 active
ingredients and about 1000 known formulations used in the fields of agriculture, human
and animal health. Developed countries consume 80% of the total production of
pesticides while the developing countries consume 20%. Africa consumes about 4% of
the total world production, which is worth about one billion USD per annum. The Arab
world consumes about 2% of the world production which is equivalent to 0.5 billion USD
per year. Several studies reported that the consumption of pesticides in developing
countries may rise in the future to 35% of world production as a result of the expected
horizontal and vertical expansion in the agricultural sector.
Based on previous records and averages (before 1990’s), the annual imports of pesticides
in the Sudan were estimated at 5000 metric tons (equivalent to 57 million USD and may
reach 70 million USD in certain seasons) representing about 11% of the total imports of
the Arab countries and they rank the third after Egypt and Saudi Arabia. The use of
various types of pesticides in Sudan witnessed great change over time. Following the
early nineties era the annual consumption dropped to 2160-3000 tons (equivalent to 35
million USD). The recent estimates were based on the average of five years, 1999-2003/4
(table 1-3). During this period, the purchase of insecticides account for 50%, followed by
herbicides (25%) and others (fungicides, seed dressing materials and aerosols, 25%).
Various factors (economic, change in area allotted for cotton and adoption of IPM in
cotton) stands behind such drop. Like wise the annual sprays in cotton reached around 11
sprays by late seventies and early eighties and reduced to an average of 3-4 sprays per
season for similar reasons. The oil production coupled with Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA) signed last year are expected to create a great boast in the economy of
the country and significantly more resources will be availed to production of more food
which may lead to further expansion in agricultural activities and therefore more
pesticide use. It is expected that use of pesticides may approach or exceed the previous
figure (5000MT).
The majority of the imported chemicals are used in the agricultural sector specially the
irrigated schemes in central Sudan. Cotton (47% of annual import) is the major crop
receiving most frequent spray followed by, vegetables (26%), sugarcane (15%), national
pests (PPD, 7%) and public health sector (2%), (Table 2-3). Spraying of cotton,
sugarcane and wheat (especially in irrigated schemes) is under the direct control of the
ministry of agriculture. However minimum governmental supervision is given to spray
operations in vegetable crops, which received an increased importance in recent years.
Like cotton, vector of major endemic diseases like malaria is under strict government
control (The Federal Ministry of Health).
Table 1; Total import (liters or kilograms) of pesticides by various sectors in Sudan
during the last five years (1999-2003)
Sector/pesticide
insecticid herbicid fungicides Seed
avicides rodenti fumiga
Groups
es
es
dresser
cies
nts
Irrigated ULVs
2344494 1234435
110021
52000
cotton
ECs
2651258
schemes Total
4995752
Local
market 482875
84418
42429
650
7164
(vegetables)
Sugarcane SSC! 26395
1072520
KSC* 50020
957860
Total 76415
1930380
Rain
MRF
2600
283960
fed
AAAID 49675
38120
total
52275
322080
PPD
926100
200
119900
5000
30000
Public health+
231906
Total
6765323 3671313 42629
110021
119900
57650 37164
% of total
62.619
33.981
0.395
1.018
1.110
0.534
0.344
SSC: Sudanese Sugar Company, KSC: Kenana Sugar Company, MRF: Mechanized rain
fed, AAAID: Arab Authority for Agricultural Investment and Development, PPD: Plant
Protection Directorate.
Table 2; Sudan’s pesticides imports (liters or kilograms) according to the category of use,
1999 – 2003.
Category/seaso 1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004
n
Herbicides
717940
818465
790204
759851
796380
%
26
36
21
25
25
Insecticides
1184612
652647
2037172
1199855
2176213
%
43
29
54
40
69
Others
880010
793830
937649
1077801
193988
%
32
35
25
35
6
Total
2782562
2264942
3765025
3037507
3166581
%
100
100
100
100
100
As % of 5y
93
75
125
101
105
Table 3; Sudan’s pesticides imports (liters or kilograms) by sector, 1999– 2003.
Average
776568
26
1,450,100
48
776656
26
3,003,323
100
100
total
6392208
617536
2106795
374355
1081200
231906
10804000
100
Sector
Agric.Scheme
s
%
Sugar Co.
%
Mech.Farming
%
PPD
%
Min.of Health
%
Private Market
%
Total
%
As% of 5
years.
1999/2000
1071732
2000/2001
862988
2001/2002
2065250
2002/2003
1025310
2003/2004
2034259
Average
1,411,908
38.5
390760
14
15580
0.6
320000
11.5
110900
4.0
873590
31.4
2782562
100
93
38.2
645960
28.5
15520
0.7
0.0
10004
0.4
730470
32.2
2264942
100
75
54.8
447300
11.9
22300
0.6
205700
5.4
74002
2.1
950473
25.2
3765025
100
125
33.7
483820
15.9
152415
5.0
195000
6.4
17500
0.6
1163462
38.3
3037507
100
101
64.2
298400
9.4
260140
8.2
360590
11.4
14500
0.5
198692
6.3
3166581
100
105
47
453248
15
93191
3
216258
7
45381
2
783337
26
3003323
100
100
Future of pesticide use in Sudan
Currently Sudan utilizes 15% of its vast cultivable land and the yields obtained from the
crops grown are much lower than the genetic potential. One way to improve production
and achieve the goals and targets of the economic plans of Sudan as a producer and
exporter of agricultural commodities is the adoption of new technologies and strategies.
As mentioned earlier the Sudan peace agreement couple with oil production is expected
to create a great boast in the economy of the country and significantly more resources
will be availed to production of more food which may lead to further expansion in
agricultural activities and therefore more pesticide use. Therefore use of pesticides will
increase in future as a result of the expected changes in agricultural policies, plans and
strategies, which involve the following:
1. Expansion in the areas under production by rehabilitating the existing irrigated
schemes and the development of new areas in the rain fed sector.
2. Intensification of production by relying more and more on modern external inputs
which include pesticides and other crop protection materials.
3. Introduction of new crops such as sunflower, maize, sugar beet … etc. which
requires the use of specific pesticides.
4. The envisaged expansion in areas under cane sugar would increase the demand
for herbicides and plant growth regulators.
5. Containment of pest problems in horticultural and other high valued crops would
gain an increasing importance.
6. The increasing tendency among agricultural production companies and
individuals investing in the mechanized rain fed sector to use seed dressing
materials, herbicides and insecticides.
7. Pests of national importance such as locusts, rats and birds, which appear in cyclic
patterns, cover vast areas and cause serious losses to crops would need special
provisions in future.
Levels in Environmental Medias
The available data is quite limited, poor and in most cases lack mainly important details.
Further most of the data was done for personal interest or following specific incident.
There no national plan for monitoring or research activities. Most of the available
information was obtained from unpublished sources, some from local publications or
local reports and few from papers published in international journals. The available data
is mainly related to the category of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from pesticides
and other persistent chemical groups. Based on the above the obtained data was
fragmented and difficult to compare in most cases, but for the purpose
of this report
the summary table (table 5) was attempted to give quick overview of levels in the
Sudanese environment.
Table 5, Summary of the levels (ppb) of POPs in the Sudanese environment.
Compartment\
chemical
Intentional POPs pesticidesa
DDT
or Heptachlor or
metabolites heptachlor epoxide
aldrin
diedrin
Soil
ND-5530
ND-1000
ND-560
ND2.21
surface water c
Ground water c
Marine water
Sea sediments
Air
Fishes
Birds
0.01-4.05b
ND
ND-350
ND
NDA
270-16000
50-5560
0.04-5.5b
ND
ND-4500
ND
NDA
NDA
Cotton seeds
Sorghum
Wheat
Fruits
&vegetables
Animal milk
20-4000
3-120
20-2160
ND-70
10-109000
30-1280
10-30
Animal fats
Human milk
470-1210
8-71830
ND
40-3250
ND
2-470
1280 (average)
10
Human
blood 10-2010
0.02-0.05
ND
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
HCH
ND20
ND
ND
ND
NDA ND
NDA ND
NDA
NDA
NDA NDA
705500
NDA NDA
NDA NDA
NDA NDA
NDA NDA
ND120
ND
10-384
Unintentional
POPs
(dioxins,
furans
&
PCBs)
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
NDA
2480
34-
NDA
NDA
NDA
(occupationally
(average)
120
exposed)
Human blood 4-618
1-170
NDA
ND-82 ND(general
92
population)
a The POPs pesticides mentioned in the table where the only ones which were studied in
the Sudan.
b
Total metabolites.
c
Excluding water sources near highly contaminated storage areas (Qurashi pesticide
store).
NDA: No data available.
ND: Not detected.
For a comprehensive review of the pesticides levels in various environmental
compartments see the relevant consultancy reports of the POPs national implementation
plan (HCENR, 2005).
Comment and analysis











Most of the research activities were done following specific incident, or for
personal interest of the scientist involved.
There is no strategic research plan whether at the national or institutional level.
The research done so far is very limited, sporadic with many gaps either in the
topic or the area covered.
Most research activities executed fall within the pesticide category only, research
on other chemical groups is currently lacking as well as there is no future plans to
cover such area at national, institutional or personal levels.
The distribution of pesticide residues in the various environmental compartments
received the lion share of the research done though it is incomplete and lack many
important details.
Specific environmental compartments such as soil, human blood and milk as well
food received much of these efforts.
Little or no research was done to study environmental fate, trends in human and
the environment.
The findings of many of these research efforts were published in local reports,
thesis, proceedings of local meetings and seminars, therefore they are of limited
access to analyzers, policy makers or international community.
Most of the studies were done in 1980’s and are highly accredited due to the
availability of best analytical instruments and quality assurance at that time.
However methodologies followed in some of the later studies although quite
acceptable but were executed with old equipments of low sensitivity and capacity
and therefore they might underestimate the residue levels in the analyzed samples.
This could be attributed to economic and political sanction placed against the
country.
The fact that there is no national strategic plan caused overlapping of many of
these research efforts and some degree of repetitions.
Levels detected based on these fragmented studies were not high compared to
other developing countries.
NDA
Suggested measures to improve the situation








Setting of national and strategic plan for continuous monitoring of hazardous
chemical residues in various environmental compartments;
Similarly a national plan for research should set forward and follow the strategic
goals of the whole country and research activities should serve the specific goals
set-out in the development plan;
Laboratories should equipped with advanced research facilities and including
necessary equipments, trained staff, good access to international literature and
data bases as well as validated methodologies;
Training and availability of technical and logistic support to monitoring activities
which adhere to the endorsed monitoring plans;
Following integrated pest management program utilizing all available methods in
integrated manner to reduce the use of pesticides in various sectors;
Similarly releases of other hazardous chemicals in the environment have to be
managed and reduced to the minimum;
Enforcement of laws and regulations as well as other guidance in area of chemical
safety during handling and use;
Awareness raising in the whole community addressing the hazards of chemicals
and how the humans and environment can be protected.
Application of pesticides and exposed population in various sectors
Various methods of application were known in the Sudan; however some methods greatly
dominate the use. The common methods can be listed below;
 Mixing grains with protectants of low mammalian toxicity to control stored
products pests.
 Baiting for the control of locusts, grasshoppers and rodents.
 Dusting for the control of agricultural and public health pests (restricted use).
 Fumigation for the control of stored products pests, seeds and goods moving
through ports.
 Granular application for the control of soil and seedling pests.
 Treatment of water for the control of aquatic weeds, disease vectors (snails) and
ectoparasites of animals (dipping).
 Seed-dressing against soil and seed borne pests and diseases using various crude
and sophisticated equipment and devices.
 Spraying of liquid preparations by manual and motorized equipment, tractor
mounted sprayers (herbicides) and aerial application for the control of pests of
field crops and migratory pests.
 Aerosols.
Since insecticides has great health concern, it may be of great value to elaborate
more in their quantities used, method and time of application in various sectors and
exposed human population. This information is summarized in table 21 and elaborated in
the following sub-titles;
Table 21; Season and method of application commonly used in various sectors dealing
with pesticides.
Sector/insecticides
Total
Method of Time of
Expected
insecticides application application
exposed people
(Liters or
Kg)
Irrigated
cotton 4995752
Air (cotton
Aug-Dec Loading/ mixing,
scheme
& wheat),
or Jan
residents,
Knapsack
consumers
of
(vegetables)
cotton oil and
products
Local
market 482875
Knapsack
Aug-Oct Workers/farmers
(vegetables)
sprayers
or
Novand consumers
Feb
Sugarcane
77060
Tractor
Aug Workers/farmers
mounted
Rain
fed 52275
Tractor
Jul-Sept
workers
(sorghum+sesame)
mounted
PPD (locust+other 926100
Vehicle
Septworkers
national pests)
mounted,
Jan/Feb
personal
operated or
air
Public health
231906
Mostly
AugtWorkers
and
Knapsack
Jan/Feb
residents
sometime
vehicle
mounted
sprayer or
other
personal
operated
machine*
Irrigated cotton schemes (mainly cotton)
The application of pesticides in cotton is done based on regular survey of pest
level and under direct supervision of plant protection department. Aerial application was
adopted since the sixties of the last century. Due to economic and practical reasons the
aerial application is done without any care to axis of wind direction. Farmers’ villages
and seasonal workers camps were located within the area and not far from cotton fields
where exposure to pesticide drift is unavoidable. Irrigation canals which represent the
major source of drinking water to farm animals as well as significant portion of human
residents (as primary or secondary source) were scattered in the area and in many cases at
an average of five meters buffer zone from cotton fields. These canals represent a second
source of exposure to farmers and other villagers. Currently cotton received an average of
3-4 sprays per season as mentioned earlier.
Vegetables
The increased importance of vegetables as alternative cash crop to farmers led to
significant expansion of their cropped area with associated increase in pest complexity
and urgent need or chemical intervention. Application of pesticides in vegetable crops
was significantly increased favored by their high economic value. Vegetables received an
average of 17% of all imported OPs. Its share in other types of pesticides was similarly
high. Vegetables currently received an average of 3-5 sprays per season. The major
problem in vegetable crops is the meager government control. Farmers themselves
analyze the pest situation and decide for control measures needed. They decide the type
of pesticide to be used, its dosage rate, method and time of application..etc. Farmers
normally used knap sack sprayers for application and care little about personal protection,
decontamination of body and spray equipments. Many of them eat, drink, smoke or snuff
during application. Minimum attention is given for reentry intervals and safety period and
therefore many cases of farmers or consumer poisoning were reported.
Public Health
Public health workers and public also get fare share of exposure to pesticides
which were used as adulticide or larvicide of mosquitoes, the vector of malaria pathogen.
Other vectors of humans and/or animal diseases such as sand fly tsetse fly …etc were
also subject to control operations. The important exposed population includes the malaria
control workers and residents. Although the control operations in this sector are under
government control, yet some workers perform the application of pesticides with
minimum precautionary measures of personal protection and/or proper body and
equipment decontamination procedures. Previous work indicated a depressed
cholinesterase activity of various types of workers involved in mosquito control
campaigns.
Plant Protection Directorate (locust and other national pests):
Plant protection directorate (PPD) is the federal body responsible for the control
of desert locust and other national pests. Beside this it also host the pesticide registrar
office with its director general being the registrar of pesticides in the country. PPD has its
own team which involved in the control of desert locust and other national pests.
Although personal protection equipments were made available to the working team, yet
many workers do not follow the correct procedure and are quite careless in using
protective measures. The hot weather conditions make protective clothes uncomfortable.
Previous work indicated a depressed cholinesterase activity among various categories of
workers.
Human Poisoning by Pesticides
The work done in this issue is limited to few sporadic reports on poisoning cases. Even
these reports were incomplete, poor and limited to pesticides only. On the other hand
reports were completely lacking in case of industrial chemicals. All cases reported were
confined to acute poisoning while no reports or studies on chronic or sub-chronic
poisoning. Until recently, poisoning by pesticides or other chemicals attracted little
public or medical attention. Poisoning may sometimes goes unrecognized, undiagnosed
or unreported and hence the registration of poisoning cases is very poor (Alindi,
unpublished; Elzorgani et al., 1993). The only partially documented cases can be
extracted from the record of the National Chemical Laboratories of the Ministry of
Health where samples of food stuff and sometimes biological samples were sent for
laboratory diagnosis and evidence. However it had been quoted by the laboratory
authority that preliminary investigation and tackling of the poisoning incidents is also
poor. In most cases the consumed food is sent without biological samples from the
victims such as; blood, urine, vomitus..etc. Postmortem examination in cases of death is
rarely done for social believes and habits. Cases of wrong sampling sometimes happen
and as a result laboratory analysis may be not be in consistent with observed symptoms.
Sometimes cases were treated locally and local authority does not seek any further
analysis especially if cases are mild. Below (table 21) are excerpts of the reported
poisoning cases (Alhindi, 1985; Elzorgani et al.,1993) where pesticides are involved;
these are the proven cases where laboratory analysis is consistent with the observed
symptoms.
Table 21. The reported poisoning cases due to pesticides (1958-1991).
No. Date Place
Victims
Deaths
Pesticide
Food type
No
1
1958 Not
8
Unknown Arsenic
water
recorded
2
1970 Tong
13
5
Zinc
Dura
phospide
3
1970 White
13
5
Torbidan
Unknown
Nile
4
1979 Elobied
13
4
Aldrin
Gorrasa (wheat)
5
1980
Nyala
unknown
Unknown
Endrin
Cake (wheat)
6
1981
Gadaref
4
3
Endosulfan
fish
7
1881
30
Unknown
Endrin
Tea (sugar)
8
1982
Gabel
Mara
Elobeid
22
Unknown
Endrin
Bread
9
1983
Gadarif
Unknown
Unknown
Endosulfan
Wheat bread
10
1983
Rufaa
100
Unknown
Endosulfan
Wheat bread
11
1984
Marawi
23
Unknown
Endosufan
Hilumur
(drura))
Endosulfan
Dura
12
1984
Elobied
2
2
13
1984
Wau
unknown
Unknown
Endosulfan
Assida(Dura)
14
1985
Mahmya
unknown
6
Endosulfan
Kisra(Dura)
15
1985
Shuak
Unknown
Unsown
Endosulfan
Dura
16
1985
Domer
unknown
Unknown
Endosulfan
17
1985
Elobeid
6
1
unknown
Kisra
(Dura)
Unknown
18
1955
Dongola
Unknown
Known
Aldrin+thiram
wheat
19
1987
Marawi
10
Unknown
Endosulfan
Kisra (Dura)
20
1988
Kenana
4
Unknown
Dieldrin
water
21
1991
Elabydia
250
31
Endosulfan
Dura
22
1991
Dongola
13
3
Endosulfan
Asida (dura)
Source: National Chemical Laboratories of the Ministry of Health; Al Hindi, 1985;
Elzorgani et al.,1993.
The following conclusion can be drawn from the data above
• Cases are mostly caused by organochlorine insecticides (Endosulfan, Aldrin,
Dieldrin & Endrin);
• Endrin has been banned since 1965 due to high toxicity to agricultural workers in
cotton fields, but still responsible for incidences in the eighties;
• Aldrin and Dieldrin have also recently been banned due to international concern
of their persistence in the environment;
• Endosulfan is still in use for cotton pests (accounts for 40-60% of the annual
spray) but has been greatly misused;
• The majority of poisonings occurred in the north and western part of the country
where there in no intensive use;
• Contamination of food was deliberately for officially unintended usage,
contamination during transportation or dressed seeds.
• There is no authority responsible for undertaking regular toxicovigiance to
identify threats to the community.
Animal poisoning
Documented cases include farm animals and fishes. As mentioned by Elzorgani et al
(1993) reports and documentation of farm animal poisoning in Gezira scheme, where
aerial spraying of pesticides is heavely practiced for more than four decades, are very
poor as the administration of the scheme accept no responsibility of compensation and
farmers are warned to keep their animals out of the treated area. Their report mentioned
that cases of animal poisoning were very common as a result of direct exposure to spray
or grazing on treated crops. Further the seen of floating dead fishes in canal water of
irrigated schemes following aerial spraying with of chlorinated insecticides, particularly
enodsulfan and endrin is very common. In 1957 the application of DDT in the Blue Nile
for control of mideges resulted in considerable fish mortality (Brown et al., 1961;
Elzorgani et al., 1993). Other cases of mass fish poisoning due to un identified
organochlorine insecticide were reported (Abdel Aziz, 1975).
Resistance to pesticides:
This topic was extensively reviewed by Bashir (1997). According to this paper,
the phenomenon of resistance to pesticides was studied in Sudan in four major cotton
pests; Bemisa tabaci, Aphis gossypii, Earias inulana (Boisd) and Podagrica punticolis.
The resistance of field strains of B. tabaci to seven insecticides including DDT was
studied in the growing season of 1981/1982. The results reported slight resistance to DDT
which ranks among the last group of tested chemicals (Dittrich and Ernst, 1983). Seven
subsequent studies were conducted by the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) and
University of Gezira on B. tabaci resistance to pesticides.
Cotton aphid was known as a late season pest in cotton. It gains importance in 1987 when
severe infestation occurred throughout the season. Some authors attributed this to the
successful control and removal of the competitive B. tabaci and J. lybica and to the
suppression of the natural enemies through the use of broad-spectrum and persistent
pesticides (Bashir, 1997). The first study on the resistance of this pest was done in 1988
followed by two later studies.
The Third pest is the spiny boll worm which was reported as important pest of cotton in
1908 in the Zeidab scheme (King, 1908). By 1976 it was spread allover the cotton
growing areas (Eltayeb, 1976). The first work on resistance to this pest was reported in
1984 by Azer, (1984) who studied the susceptibility of this pest to three insecticides,
including DDT, through four generations of larval selection. He reported that the insect
started to develop resistance to these pesticides in the third and forth generations. DDT
ranked the second in susceptibility. A later study on this pest was done by Mohamed et
al., (1993) who also studied the resistance of cotton flea beetle.
On the other side the use of DDT was still authorized for public health purposes, although
was under consideration by the National Pesticide Council (NPC). Application of DDT in
this sector is under the authority of the National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) and
criteria for selecting a geographical area for indoor application of DDT are; malaria
endemicity and vector susceptibility. The timing of application depends on malaria
endemicity, season (more vector during rainy season), and availability of budget.
Resistance and susceptibility of vectors of human diseases to DDT was studies and
monitored regularly by the National Administration for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and
Leishmaniasis (NAMSL), Federal Ministry of Health (MOH). According to July 2004
report of the NAMSL, monitoring of resistance to DDT is carried out regularly all over
the country. The standard WHO adult susceptibility test kit and methods were used. Four
practical doses are used for insecticides under use in Sudan; DDT (4%), malathion (5%),
fenitrothion (1%),deltamethrin (0.05%) and permethrin (0.75%). A total of 65 sentinel
sites representing the various epidemiological strata in 16 states of northern Sudan (the
remaining 10 states are excluded for security reason) are regularly monitored every three
years. According to the NAMSL report of July 2004 the malaria vector (Anopholes
arabiensis) is still susceptible (mortality range; 41-100%) to DDT in 16 states of northern
Sudan (tested by the WHO standard procedure and test kits).
Effects on non-target organisms
As in other areas few fragmented studies were done in this area for personal interest of
some researchers or following specific accident. There are no plans of monitoring such
effects. The non-target organisms studied include mainly arthropods such as pollinators
and natural enemies. Toxicities to such organisms were reported under field or
experimental plots or in the laboratory (Kabashi et al., 2003; Fadlelmoula, 2005; Mabior,
2000).
Studies on movement in the environment
This area have not been touched by researchers except one study which was done on the
short range movement of contaminants (some pesticides) from Qurashi pesticide store,
Hasahesa (Babiker,1998).
Studies on the metabolic fate and biological effects
This area have not been touched by researchers except few studies conducted on the fate
of C14 DDT on fishes, birds, plants (cotton and vegetables) and rats (Elhabieb et al.,
1995; Abbas, 1997). The first author looked at uptake, distribution and metabolism of
C14 DDT in the fish Oreochromis niloticus. This fish had been exposed to 0.05 ppm of
C14 DDT in water over a three weeks period. The result showed a rapid uptake of this
insecticide and the labelled material was distributed in the different organs. The highest
concentration was found in the liver (31.05 mg/Kg) while the lowest concentration was
found in the muscles (0.191-0.836 mg/Kg). The amount of radioactivity in the alimentary
canal ranged from 2.123- 8.487 mg/Kg and in the brain there is a build-up of 1.09-21.479
mg/Kg. The fish was able to metabolize the p,p DDT into p,p-DDE and p,p-TDE. About
80% of the insecticide was found as p,p-DDE. The concentration of p,p-TDE was found
in the alimentary canal, while the concentration of DDE was found in the muscles. All
the three compounds (p,p DDT, p,p-DDE and p,p-TDE) were found in th aquarium water.
The second author (Abbass, 1997) studied the fate of C14 DDT in the domestic fowl.
Her study was focussed on the distribution of DDT and its various metabolites in the
different tissues and organs of this domestic chicken. Sirag et al (1999) studied the
relationship between some organochlorines (DDT, HCH and heptachlor) and an
oranophosphorus pesticides (chlorpyrifos) and the occurrence of certain neurological
symptoms. They reported that DDE accounts for 64% of total blood DDT. No correlation
was found between the concentration of the identified pesticides and body weight, age,
duration of exposure and occupation. Attempts to correlate the concentration of DDT
with occurrence of some neurological symptoms such as chronic head ache and tremor
did not reveal any significant correlation. The study concluded that; DDT should not be
blamed alone, but also other pesticides for harmful effects on humans. DDT use for
vector and pest control should be re-evaluated taking in consideration its ecological
impact. The spray-men were identified as the high risk group who should be protected by
protective clothing suitable for hot climate.
Other Chemicals
Chemicals Import:
Sudan dose not produce chemicals but the amount imported is rapidly increasing as
shown in the following table:
Chemicals
unit
M.
Ton
& Value
Medicines
Pharmaceuticals
Products
Organic & Inorganic Value
Chemicals
Perfumes
&
Cosmetics
Manufactured
Fertilizers
Insecticides
Explosives
Tanning & Dying
Materials
Others
2004
Value
Quantity
2003
Value
Quantity
2002
Value
111770
79769
65202
98346
70359
57562
Quantity
29559
16663
20985
17368
19272
10723
29612
130223
20011
131086
18191
127572
6833
5505
10907
1705
2545
9185
4630
4493
7061
2666
2306
8098
1889
2001
5124
1066
635
6867
33155
23990
327487
231298
Source: Statistical Year Book for The Year 2004
37216
206457
Chemical Legislations
Legal instruments required to manage all aspects of chemicals in the Sudan are far from
being sufficient or efficient. Legislation addressing chemicals are contained in different
instruments, the most important of direct relevance are the Pesticides and Plant Protection
Materials Act, 1994; the Food additives Regulations, 1977; the Environmental Protection
Act, 2001; the Ozone Layer Depleting Substances Regulations; and the Pharmacy and
Poison Act, 1963.
It is worth mentioning that the chemicals fertilizers, industrial chemicals and consumer
chemicals are not covered by any legislation.
Food additives are regulated through the Food Additives Regulations. The Ministry of
Health issues a selected list of items, based on the decisions of JECFA and it is regularly
reviewed and amended. Again this instrument suffers from the common weakness of
finance and follows up facilities.
The Environment Protection Act is an umbrella legislation delineating the necessary
polices and guidelines for the protection and improvement of the environment. It supports
other acts pertaining the pollution control. As such, it is involved in all aspects of
chemical management.
The Ozone Layer Depleting Substances Regulation, regulate the import and use of
chemicals in accordance with Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol. Imports of all
products containing ozone layer depleting substances are prohibited. The Pharmacy and
Poisons Act partly covers some industrial chemicals. This act dates back to 1963 and is
currently being reviewed and amended. It is however strongly advised that a separate
legislation governing the industrial chemicals should immediately set forth.
Health and Environmental Impact of Chemicals:
There are many problems associated with chemical production, trade and use in the
country. World wide it is estimated that chemical exposure at work alone is responsible
for about 4% of all deaths from cancer. Many studies showed that the chemical pollution
of the environment has long-term effects on human life. It is therefore essential that
chemicals manufacture, use, storage, transport and disposal should be controlled.
Recently there are international and national growing interest to reduce chemicals
adverse effects in human life and their impact in the environment. In Sudan only the
status of chemical pollution in Sudanese water (marine, surface, and groundwater); food
poisoning; hazardous wastes; occupational health and accidents; and air pollution has
recived a small degree of concern.
Surveyed data about pollution of Sudan's coast line of the Red Sea revealed that:
- The degree oil spreading and pollution along the Sudanese coast is still not so serious.
- The most polluted area is the harbor due to the direct discharge of oil from the power
station, shipping activities and the oil terminal.
Surface water comprises the River Nile and its tributaries, wades, dams and irrigated
canals were generally free from pollution. However, eminent threat from increase use of
fertilizer, pesticides application and miss use and some industrial activities cannot be
ignored in the future. Regular monitoring is lacked.
Groundwater (surface wells and boreholes) in some parts of the country have high
concentration with certain elements such as sulphate, sodium, fluorides and nitrates
which present as natural compounds of the groundwater. However, the authority to shut
down the wells and boreholes in which such elements exceed the seted limits.
Food contamination with chemicals, especially for residue, is not well monitored within
the country. Only information available are those for sporadic cases of poisoning by
pesticides and datura seeds.
Hazardous wastes of real concern are pesticides, industry and biomedical activities. Some
studies reveal the presence of small quantities of analytical and confiscated chemicals at
Custom custody. The wastes, which need a prompt action, are the huge quantities of
stockpiles and obsolete pesticides and the asbestos wastes.
Health problems related to production, import or uses of chemicals are dealt with in
general patients hospitals and clinics. No separate specialized clinic or centres are
established in the country.
Dioxins and Furans (PCDD/PCDF) are toxic compounds and act as endocrine disruptors
and immune suppressors. An adverse effect of PCDD/PCDF includes e.g. developmental
neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, immunotoxicity, endometriosis and cancer.
Figure 1: Shows their sources, environmental transport and major human exposure
pathways
PCDD/F Sources
Chemicals
Products
Environmental Transport
Atmosphere
Inhalation
Ingestion of vegetables
Plant
Residues, Disposal,
Dumps, Hot Spots
Combustion sources
Thermal sources
Industrial Processes
Land
Ingestion of meat and
diary products
Animals
Water/
Coast/Ocean
Human Exposure
Fish/
shellfish
Ingestion of seafood
The quantities of dioxin and furans releases from all categories according to inventory
conducted by Sudanese team under the POPs enabling project are summarized in the
below table:
Cat
Source Categories
Annual Releases (g TEQ/a)
Air
Water Land
Products Residues Total
%
1
Waste Incineration
0.203
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.203
0.02
2
Ferrous and Non-Ferrous 5.612
Metal Production
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.1
6.712
0.68
3
Power Generation and 24.133
Heating
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
24.133
2.43
4
Production of Mineral 0.214
Products
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.214
0.02
5
Transportation
0.178
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.178
0.02
6
Uncontrolled
Combustion Processes
345.240 0.000
52.409 0.000
535.6
933.249 94.11
7
Production of Chemicals 0.000
and Consumer Goods
0.000
0.000
23.992
0.000
23.992
8
Miscellaneous
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
9
Disposal/Landfills
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.9
2.42
0.00
2.9
0.29
10
Identification
Potential Hot-Spots
of
1-9
Total
375.6
0.0
52.4
%
37.88
0.00
5.29
24
539.6
991.6
An estimated 991.6 g TEQ of PCDD/PCDF was released into the environments of Sudan
in 2003. Uncontrolled combustion processes had the largest impact with an emission of
933.3 g TEQ/a, which is 94.1% of total emission. Within this category the main
contributing subcategories were uncontrolled waste burning with an estimated emission
of 802.5 g (81.0% of total emission), followed by forest fires (98.3 g; 9.9% of total
releases) and open burning of impacted agricultural residue (28.8 g; 2.9%).
Other sources contributing to the total emission in the percent range were from category 3
household heating and cooking (28.6 g; 2.9%) and from category 7 the leather production
(23.8 g; 2.4%).
Point sources with potential locally high emissions and therefore with potential impact on
the human heath are e.g. metal production, leather industry and hot spots. For example
three small enterprises emit an estimated 5 g TEQ/a directly “to the neighbourhood” by
open burning of cables.
The releases to the 5 compartments/media – air, water, land, residues and products – were
assessed. According to the toolkit approach, the main emission vectors were to residues
(539.6 g; 54.4% of total releases) and air (375.6 g; 37.9% of total releases) with minor
releases to land (52.4 g, 5.3% of total releases), product (24.0 g; 2.4% of total releases)
and water (0.01 g; 0.0% of total releases)
International Commitments
Three international conventions are important in pesticides and chemical
management; Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions. These
conventions provide life-cycle (integrated) approach to chemicals
management. They been have developed based the paragraph 49 of chapter
19 of Agenda 21,5 adopted at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in 1992. The paragraph, emphasized the
importance of the life-cycle approach by stating that Governments, through
cooperation with relevant international organizations, should consider
adopting polices based among other things on the life-cycle approach to
chemicals management covering manufacturing, trade, transport, use and
disposal and that they should undertake concerted activities to reduce risks
from toxic chemicals taking into account the entire life cycle of the
Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3(14 June 1992, vol. I,
Resolutions adopted by the Conference (United Nations
publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution
1, annex II.
5
chemicals. Further in 2002, representatives at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development set a goal of ensuring the sound management of
chemicals worldwide by 2020. As an important milestone towards achieving
that goal and towards ensuring a coherent approach to chemicals
management at all levels, Governments and stakeholders have developed the
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM),
which was adopted by the International Conference on Chemicals
Management at its first session, in February 2006. Below is a summary of
the key provisions of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions.
A.
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention establishes a written prior informed consent (PIC)
procedure to control the transboundary movement of hazardous chemicals
and wastes. The Convention was adopted in 1989 and entered into force in
1992. As of March 2006, the Convention had 168 contracting Parties. The
Convention provides technical support to help countries manage and dispose
of such wastes in an environmentally sound manner and to reduce their
generation. In the first decade after its entry into force, work under the
Convention focused primarily on developing a global system of control on
transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and criteria for their
environmentally sound management.
The obligations of Parties to the Convention are to report specified
information to the Secretariat; build the necessary infrastructure and
facilities to identify and dispose of wastes in an environmentally sound
manner; minimize waste generation and the export of waste; control waste
exports on a shipment-by-shipment basis through the PIC procedure;
monitor the effects of hazardous waste management on human health and
the environment, develop and use low-waste technologies; and – for those
with the means to do it – to assist other countries in developing and
strengthening their infrastructure and capacity to manage hazardous wastes.
B.
Rotterdam Convention
The Rotterdam Convention was adopted in September 1998. The objective
of the Convention is to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts
among Parties in the international trade in certain hazardous chemicals in
order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and
to contribute to their environmentally sound use by facilitating information
exchange about their characteristics, by providing a national decisionmaking process on their import and export, and by disseminating those
decisions to Parties.
The Convention was developed based on the voluntary PIC procedure
established jointly by FAO and UNEP in 1992. The Convention entered into
force in February 2004 and, as of 19 January 2006, the convention had 102
Parties. FAO and UNEP jointly provided the secretariat during the interim
PIC procedure and entry into force. The joint Secretariat was developed to
benefit from synergies between the work on pesticides in FAO and that on
industrial chemicals in UNEP.
The main obligations of the Convention Parties are to notify the Secretariat
of their final regulatory actions to ban or severely restrict chemicals; propose
severely hazardous pesticide formulations causing problems under the
conditions of use in developing countries and countries with economies in
transition; provide import decisions for the chemicals listed in Annex III;
respect the import decisions of importing Parties for chemicals listed in
Annex III; control the export of chemicals that are banned or severely
restricted domestically; strengthen national infrastructures and institutions so
as to implement the Convention effectively; assist other countries in
developing the infrastructure and capacity necessary to manage chemicals
and to implement the Convention; promote chemical safety and awareness;
and participate in the exchange of information on those chemicals that are
banned or severely restricted and also on severely hazardous pesticide
formulations.
C.
Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention aims to protect human health and the
environment from POPs and to reduce or eliminate production and use of
POPs and releases of POPs from unintentional production and from
stockpiles and wastes. The Stockholm Convention was adopted in 2001 in
response to calls for global action to reduce the dispersal of these chemicals
into the environment, sometimes to places far from their source. It came into
force in May 2004 and, as of 31 January 2006, it had 118 contracting
Parties. The Convention currently lists 12 chemicals or groups of chemicals.
These comprise pesticides, industrial chemicals and unintentionally
produced by-products. Eight of these chemicals are also listed in Annex III
to the Rotterdam Convention. The Stockholm Convention establishes
criteria and procedures for considering the listing of additional chemicals.
The main obligations of the Parties to the Convention are to eliminate or
restrict the intentional production, use, import and export of POPs; reduce or
eliminate releases of unintentionally produced POPs; reduce or eliminate
POPs releases from stockpiles and wastes; report on the measures taken to
implement the Convention; provide data on production, import and export of
POPs; promote information exchange, awareness and education about the
Convention; support research on listed and candidate POPs and their
alternatives; support national activities to implement the Convention; and
assist other countries in improving their capacity to implement the
Convention. Following its third meeting, in 2007, the Conference of the
Parties to the Convention will be convened biennially.
Sudan obligations in these conventions;
As specified by the Environment Protection Act (2001) Sudan is committed
to comply with all relevant provisions of the multi environmental
agreements, MEAs, signed, ratified, acceded or approved by the Sudanese
government. As mentioned before three internationals conventions had
relevance to pesticides and other hazardous chemicals; Basle, Rotterdam and
Stockholm conventions. Below is a summary of Sudan position in the three
conventions;
Table 4; Summary of Sudan obligations under the three chemical conventions.
Chemical
Sudan
Convention position
Rotterdam
Convention
Fulfilment of key obligations
Party
since Sudan fulfilled all obligations regarding import responses
April 2004,
for the 28 pesticides listed in annex three.
Failed to submit any import response regarding the 11
industrial chemicals, inter-ministerial committee was
established to prepare the required responses with slow
progress.
Submitted only one notification about one pesticide
(aldicarb) under voluntary procedure.
Appointed a DNA to act on behalf of the government.
No proposal for SHPF, or export notification yet.
Basle
Convention
Ratified
in No obligations yet
2006,
the
convention
not
yet
entered into
force
to
Sudan
Stockholm
Convention
The cabinet No obligations yet
and
the
parliament
approved the
ratification,
deposition of
signature in
the process.
Main Challenges, Obstacles and the way forward
As mentioned above Sudan is currently committed to the Rotterdam convention only, the
other two will soon present further obligations upon becoming party. The main
challenges and obstacles can be summarized in the following;

Legal and regulatory support;
1. Pesticide and Pest Control Products Act of 1994 provide a suitable
instrument governing the use of pesticides and pest control products in the
country and therefore can provide a tool for executing necessary
obligations regarding pesticides; it might need some revisions or updated
bylaws to accommodate obligations created by the relevant international
conventions.
2. There is an urgent need to draft and adopt a law for industrial chemicals to
fulfil all obligations required by the three conventions regarding this group
of chemicals. The draft of interim bylaw based on the environmental law
of 2001 need to be revised and adopted to provide some legal background
for decisions on such chemicals.
3.

There is an urgent need to adopt an umbrella law for chemical to
synergise and integrate the work on relevant obligations regarding
chemicals subject to international conventions.
Administrative arrangements;
1. Administrative arrangements had to be made to provide support for necessary
decisions before legal support was put in place.
2. The existing administrative systems had to be empowered and supported with
trained and qualified staff as well as necessary facilities;

Access to information, information exchange and coordination;
1. As mentioned earlier many of key provisions of these conventions require
good access to information as well as an efficient mechanism of
information exchange and quick dissemination of decisions between all
relevant stakeholders within the country.
2. Good coordination between all stakeholders and syncronisation of efforts
for sound management of chemicals.

Cooperation at regional and international levels;
Many of the activities can be executed through technical assistant from the
region or from the international community. All of the three conventions
call for provision of technical support to developing countries and
countries with economies in transition. Therefore there is an urgent need
to make use of such provisions.
Recommendations:
1- Establishment of sound chemicals management system involving all concerned
parties from government, agricultural workers, industry, research institutes, nongovernmental organizations and academia through multi-stakeholder committee.
2- Overarching legislation should be developed or at least develop legislation to fill
the gaps which are identified in the following areas:
 Industrial and consumer chemicals – legislation which per se: their
importation, use, packaging, labelling…..etc.
 Hazardous products
 Fertilizers


Sited standards and acceptable limits for chemicals release in
environmental media (including water, air, soil) and in food and
consumer goods
Compliance scheme to monitor, enforce and promote observance of
legislative provisions
3- building the capacities and capabilities of the institutions concerned with
chemicals management. This should include:
 education and training and awareness
 availability of resources needed
 sufficient safety information about chemicals (e.g. MSDS and labeling)
 development of infrastructure for regulatory system (e.g. accredited
laboratories)
 development of PRTR
4- development of awareness programme which cover all health and
environmental impact of chemical and their judicious and safe use
5- establishment of poison control centres with sufficient clinical and analytical
capacities in addition to functions of treatment and prevention
6- incorporation of the provisions of the international conventions in which the
country is party, in policy and programmes of chemicals management
7- establishment of pesticides use surveillance and monitoring programme to obtain
information on use conditions and their impact on the environment
8- evaluation of obsolete and unwanted chemicals, especially obsolete pesticides
and their environmental risks (inventory survey, and risk assessment)
9- establishment of mandatory or voluntary pesticide containers procedure
10- development of monitoring programme for reduction of unintentionally produced
chemicals like dioxins and furans
11- development of programme to remove use all electrical transformers and
capacitors which contain PCBs as cooling agents.
References
Abbadi, K. H. (1974). Progress report on DDT residues in human milk in Gezira, Sudan,
(unpublished).
Abbadi, K. H. (1980). Progress report on dieldrin residues in ground nut in Kordofan
province, (unpublished).
Abbadi, K. H. and Elzorgani, G. A. (1981). Residues of DDT in soil of the Sudan
Gezira. 1st international congress for soil pollution and protection from pesticides
residues, Zagazig University, Egypt. 22-28 August 1981.
Abbadi, K. H. (1979). Survey on cotton seed, cotton seed cake and cotton seed oil.
(unpublished).
Abbas, E. A. (1997). Fate of DDT in domestic fowl. PhD. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Khartoum.
Abdelbagi, A. O; Elmahi, M. A. and Osman, D. G. (2000). Chlorinated hydrocarbon
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Plant Protection 18, 35-39.
Abdelbagi, A. O. Elmahi, A. M. And Osman, D. G. (2003). Organochlorine insecticides
residues in Sudanese soil of intensive pesticide use and in surface soil of Qurashi
pesticide store. U. of K. J. of Agric. Sci. 11: 59-68.
Abdelbagi, A. O., Elgailani, O. & Elskeikh, S. A. Ongoing PhD research, Facuty of
Agriculture, University of Khartoum.
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