Augustiniene Aldona
Kaunas University of Technology
Šiaučiukėnienė Liuda
Kaunas University of Technology
Searching for the educational model to develop pupils’ skills of career decision-making
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research Post Graduate and New
Researcher Pre-Conference, University of Crete, 20-21 September 2004
Abstract
Transformations in the way of life choice situation calls for a new paradigm to help students make
informed career choices and gain the necessary employability and self-management skills. The new career
management paradigm recognizes that career development is a life-long process of skill acquisition and building
through a continuum of learning, development and mastery. Career management’s aim is to help people to become
self-reliant, allowing them to provide for themselves and their families, and to contribute positively to changing
workforce. The analysis of scientific works, related to the problems of making career decisions shows, that some
authors (Kregzdė, 1988; Jovaisa, 1999; Beresnevicienė, 1990) are interested in the process of choosing a career
(factors, influencing it, formations of professional interests and others), while other educators (Nathan, Hill, 1992;
Hodkinson, 1996; Gati, 2001) go deeper into the process of taking a career decision. This points out, that the
peculiarities of career decision are to be analyzed in two aspects: preparation for career decision (long lasting
process) and decision making (a stage of process).
Career decision is a very complex social, psychological, educational and philosophical phenomenon. How to
describe career decision making as an educational objective? How can the career decision making skills be
developed in harmony of individual and society values?
Therefore, the following research questions are issued: what are the career decision making skills as the
educational object? How can the career decision making skills be developed? Thus, the aim of this article is to
explore the decision making skills and the ways of their formation that could be offered in the different career
development theoretical and practical areas.
The first part of article presents exploration of the career decision making skills as the educational object.
The second part discusses some practical aspects.
In the different models of career decision making the decision making skills are understood as the part in
definitions of metacognition, transfer of knowledge, problem orientation, open mindedness, they are parts of the
thinking skills together with the abilities to think creatively, solve problems, visualize, reason, analyze, interpret and
know how to learn. Decision-making skills education should have in mind the personal level of personal experience,
it should also create the enabling environment helping the students to match rational and emotional levels of
decision making, supporting self-confidence and exercising informational, problem-solving skills, providing the
effective communication. The career counselling programs should create a comprehensive, integrated and holistic
career development process.
Conference paper presented at ECER Post-Graduate and New Researcher’s Pre-conference,
Rethymon, Crete, 20-21 September, 2004
Keywords: career management, career decision-making skills, career counselling.
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Introduction
The context of the changing work environment causes transformations in the way of life
choice situation. For this reason a “new paradigm is needed to help students make informed
career choices and gain the necessary employability and self-management skills <…> to help
students learn the skills they now need to become healthy, self-reliant citizens, who are able to
prosper in rapidly changing labor markets, and maintain balance between life and work roles”
(P.S.Jarvis, 2003). This is a new approach to career development – the new career management
paradigm, that changes traditional vocational guidance paradigm expected young people to make
an informed, long term career choice before graduating from high school. According to
P.S.Jarvis, mastery of career management skills, which include transferable employability and
personal management skills, needs be part of mainstream primary, secondary and post-secondary
educational programs, employee training and development programs and remedial programs for
adults in career transitions. The new career management paradigm recognizes that career
development is a life-long process of skill acquisition and building through a continuum of
learning, development and mastery. Career management equips people with the ability to make
good choices, time after time, for the rest of their lives. Its aim is to help people to become selfreliant, allowing them to provide for themselves and their families, and to contribute positively
to changing workforce. The analysis of scientific works, related to the problems of making
career decisions shows, that some authors (Kregzdė, 1988; Jovaisa, 1999, oth.) are interested in
the process of choosing a career (factors, influencing it, formations of professional interests and
others), while other educators (Gati, 1986, oth.) go deeper into the process of taking a career
decision. This points out, that the peculiarities of career decision are to be analyzed in two
aspects: preparation for career decision (long lasting process) and decision making (a stage of
process) (Stanisauskiene, 2000).
Career decision is a very complex social, psychological, educational and philosophical
phenomenon. How to describe career decision making as an educational objective? How can the
career decision making skills be developed in harmony of individual and society values?
Therefore, the following research questions are issued: what are the career decision
making skills as the educational object? How can the career decision making skills be
developed? Thus, the aim of this article is to explore the decision making skills and the ways of
their formation that could be offered in the different career development theoretical and
practical areas.
The first part of article presents exploration of the career decision making skills as the
2
educational object. The second part discusses some practical aspects.
1. The Decision-Making Skills as the Educational Object
The analysis of scientific literature reveals two basic models of the decision making: rational
choice model and alternative to rational choice model. Rational- choice model of decision
making comprises reason, logic, objectivity and independence. The aim of education is to
prevent insufficient maturity, internal conflicts, lack of self confidence, information or problem
solving skills (D.E.Super, 1996). Alternative to rational-choice model of decision making points
out intuition, emotion, subjectivity, and interdependence. They emphasize the circumstances
surrounding the decision making process. Krumboltz (1998), P.J.Hartung and D.L.Blustein
(2002), P.Thagard (2001) and others recognize the complementarity of the rational and the
alternative–to–rational approaches and that systematic integration are both timely and
theoretically defensible rather than viewing them as conflict position. Phillips (1994, 1997)
suggests that as the common part of both types of decision–making models may be "true
reasoning" especially stressed in the classical F.Parsons model (Parsons, Choosing a Vocation,
1909, p. 5, quoted in P.J.Hartung and D.L.Blustein, 2002).
For the educational purposes it is important to describe decision making from different
theoretical and practical approaches.
According to the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SKANS, 1991)
decision making skills are the part of the thinking skills of the foundation skills and qualities.
Together with the abilities to think creatively, solve problems, visualize, reason, analyze,
interpret and know how to learn – decision making are most often mentioned in definitions of
metacognition, transfer of knowledge, problem orientation, open mindedness, use of quality
standards and independence. Decision making goes together with problem solving:
“<...> Work of making decisions and solving problems <...> it is work of choosing issues
that require attention, setting goals, finding or designing suitable courses of action, and
evaluating and choosing among alternative actions.
The first three of these activities – fixing agendas, setting goals, and designing actions – are
usually called problem solving; the last, evaluating and choosing, is usually called decisionmaking. Nothing is more important for the well being of society than that this work be performed
effectively” (Herbert A. Simon and Associates, 1986).
Decision-making is a kind of inference. Many philosophers have advocated coherence
theories of inference but have left rather vague how to maximize coherence (e.g. Harman 1986,
Brink 1989, and Hurley 1989, Thagard P., 2001).
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The theory of Informed Intuition like the intuition model recognizes that decision making is
an unconscious process that involves emotions. Like the calculation model, it aims to avoid
decision errors caused by unsystematic and unexamined intuitions. Scientific consensus
concerning competing scientific theories can emerge from a process of individual coherence and
interpersonal communication (Thagard, 2001). But conflict resolution, concerning what to do,
demands a more complex process of comparing and communicating the diverse goals driving the
various decision makers. The theory of Informed Intuition includes the following steps:
1. The setting up of the decision problem carefully. This requires identifying the
goals to be accomplished by your decision and specifying the broad range of possible
actions that might accomplish those goals.
2. Reflection on the importance of the different goals. Such reflection will be more
emotional and intuitive than just putting a numerical weight on them, but should help
you to be more aware of what you care about in the current decision situation.
3. Identification of the goals the importance of which may be exaggerated because
of jonesing or other emotional distortions.
4. Examination of the beliefs about the extent to which various actions would
facilitate the different goals. Are these beliefs based on good evidence? If not, revise
them.
5. Making your intuitive judgment about the best action to perform, monitoring your
emotional reaction to different options.
6. Running your decision past other people to see if it seems reasonable to them
(Thagard P., 2001).
A crucial part of this process is becoming aware of the emotional states of others, which
may benefit as much from face-to-face interactions, involving perception of people's physical as
from purely verbal communication. This does not mean that practical and theoretical reasoning
should be sneered at. Making reasoning explicit in decisions helps to communicate to all the
people involved what the relevant goals, actions, and facilitation relations might be. If
communication is effective, then the desired result will be that each decision maker will make a
better informed intuitive decision about what to do. Improving inference is both a matter of
recognizing good inference procedures such as Informed Intuition and watching out for errors
that people commonly make. The subjective one depends on the subjects’ readiness for
accumulation of information and disposition to follow it. Various environments and causes often
determine not only lateness of cognition and practical actions, the degree of their inferiority but
also the correction of everything.
Lots of different models of career decision making are offered as a guide. One of them
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ASSESS-EXPLORE- DECIDE-ACT has four steps for making good career decisions.

ASSESS: identify the decision to be made and outcomes desired. What do I want in a
career? It helps person accomplish his professional and personal goals, matches his
interests, values and strengths.

EXPLORE: gather information and identify alternatives. What information do I
need? It identifies possible career fields, entry-level graduate opportunities and what
it will take for person to succeed. Acknowledges the possible longer-term outlook for
different career fields, incorporates person work environment preferences.

DECIDE: weigh evidence and choose from the alternatives. What will lead to me
achieving my desired outcomes? What might obstruct me? It helps narrow person
preferences from the several career fields that might be a good fit. Tests desirability
and person motivation levels for each option.

ACT: What action should I take? By when? It locates organizations which employ
graduates (and others) in person chosen field. It clarifies the personal qualities,
skills, knowledge and prior work experience required being competitive.
As it is seen, the model reflects traditional vocational guidance paradigm expected young
people to make an informed, long term career choice before graduating from high school and
puts more emphasis on the rational thinking process.
Main ideas of the theory of Informed Intuition may be recognized in the Cognitive
Information Processing (CIP) theory of career problem-solving and decision-making (Peterson,
Sampson, & Reardon, 1991; Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 1996) uses the CASVE
Cycle, a generic problem solving and decision making model:

Communication. In CIP theory, career interventions focus on the “gaps” between
external demands and internal affective, behavioral, or physiological states
(emotions, avoidance behavior, physiological).

Analysis involves a review of all the causal factors that contribute to gaps. Enhance
self-knowledge by clarifying values, interests, skills, and employment.

Synthesis. In CIP theory, synthesis involves reviewing all possible options for
elaboration to identify the maximum number of potential alternatives (occupations,
programs of study, or jobs) and crystallization; to narrow potential occupations
programs of study, or jobs to a manageable number of options.

Valuing - judgment to the costs and benefits of each alternative to oneself, significant
others, e.g. family, cultural group, community and / or society at large, and prioritize
alternatives.

Execution – formulate a plan for implementing a tentative choice: preparation
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program (formal education/ training experience), reality testing (full-time, part time,
and /or volunteer work experience, as well as taking courses or training), and
employment seeking (steps to apply for and get a job).
According to P.S. Jarvis (2003), however, high quality, current, and comprehensive
information is only part of helping students make sound academic and educational choices.
Students need skills to use the information effectively while trying self-knowledge to
exploration. They need to develop self-reliance and focus on work activities that are important to
them. They need direction to learn which workplace options can provide fulfillment and
satisfaction so they can seek ways to qualify for opportunities. Finally, they need adaptability,
the skill of making the best of ever-present change. This point of view demands to see decision
making skills in wider context of the core competences.
The core competencies are the basis upon which career development programs can be
designed. The Blueprint for Life/Work Design (Redekopp, Hache, Jarvis, & National Life/Work
Centre, Canada Career Information Partnership, & Human Resources Development Canada, n.d.)
identifies core competencies with associated performance indicators at four developmental levels
across the lifespan (Level 1-Primary/Elementary School, Level 2-Junior High/Middle School,
Level 3-High School, and Level 4-Adult, including Postsecondary). The performance indicators,
organized by learning stages (acquisition, application, personalization, and actualization), can be
used to measure learning gains and demonstrate the effectiveness of career development
programs. The following presents the Blueprint core competencies by area (table1).
Table 1
Core competencies with associated performance indicators*
Area A: Personal Management
Area B: Learning and Work
Exploration
1. Build and maintain a positive
self-image.
2. Interact positively and effectively
with others.
3. Change and grow throughout
one's life.
4. Participate in lifelong learning
supportive of life/work goals.
5. Locate and effectively use
life/work information.
6. Understand the relationship
between work and
society/economy.
Area C: Life/Work (Career)
Building
7. Secure or create and maintain
work.
8. Make life/work enhancing
decisions.
9. Maintain balanced life and work
roles.
10. Understand the changing nature
of life and work roles.
11. Understand, engage in, and
manage one's own lift/work building
process.
*Adapted from The Blueprint for Life/Work Design (Redekopp, Hache, Jarvis, & National Life/Work Centre,
Canada Career Information Partnership, & Human Resources Development Canada, n.d.).
These competencies include the employability skills employer groups often suggest are
lacking in too many youth employees (Barry, 2001, quoted in Jarvis, 2003).
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2. The Ways for Decision Making Skills development
There is a consensus in the literature that career development is a life long process that
begins as early as four years old (Schulenberg, Vondracek, & Crouter, 1984; Seligman,
Weinstock, & Heflin, 1991; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996). Scientists also agree that parents
are the single most influential factor in the career development and choice of their children
(Kotrlik & Harrison, 1989; McNair & Brown, 1983; Trusty, 1996), but are not adequately
informed about how to help (Jeffery, Lehr, Hache, & Campbell, 1992; Young, 1994).
According to D.E.Super, psychological-pedagogical measures may ensure the competence,
necessary for decision–making and choices, help to avoid hasty and irrational decision–making
and its consequences, prevent career choice difficulties, such as insufficient maturity, internal
conflicts, lack of self confidence, information or problem solving skills. The Blueprint for
Life/Work Design (Redekopp, Hache, Jarvis, & National Life/Work Centre, Canada Career
Information Partnership, & Human Resources Development Canada, n.d.) provides a foundation
for integration and infusion of career building and career management competencies into school
counselling programs to effectively prepare students for the future.
While enabling individuals to utilize their career exploration and management skills
effectively, access to high-quality information is essential. The United Kingdom National Skills
Task Force30 highlighted that ‘an essential precondition for the effective operation of markets is
informed demand. For the labor and education and training markets, this means accessible,
timely, and relevant labor market and skills information’. Even if only a relatively small
proportion of students improve their decision-making skills, the gains in terms of avoiding
wasted investment are likely to far outweigh the costs. Information processing theory is one of
three types of cognitive theories upon which teaching strategies can be based (Thomas, 1992). It
explains how the mind takes in the information. Knowledge structure theories depict how
knowledge is represented and organized in the mind. Social history theory explains the vital role
of cultural context in the development of cognition. Learning as active process in which the
learner constructs knowledge as a result of interactions with the physical and social environment
is moving from basic skills and pure facts to linking new information with prior knowledge.
Learning is moving also from relying on single authority to recognizing multiple sources of
knowledge, from novice-like to expert-like problem solving. Information is necessary, but it is
not always sufficient. UK ‘National Skills Task Force 2nd Report’ says that many young people
and adults require additional support to reflect on the options available, assess potential routes
and prioritize their preferred pathways.
Research in Canada and USA (S.Kerka, 2000b) has shown the strong influences of
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parents/careers, partners and friends in the career decision-making process. Such informal
support can be valuable, but may need to be supplemented by more informed and skilled support
from career professionals. Achieving the goals proposed by a shift from vocational decision
making to career building requires a framework for school counsellors to help students become
aware of and master career management skills. Programs and resources need to be based on clear
and measurable career management learning and performance outcomes.
Nevertheless it is usual for the future plans to be developed in the family first. It is based on
parental birthrights and responsibility, assigned to the parents by society. Therefore a
controversy reveals itself – even though it is accepted in the liberal society concept that the
decision necessarily lies upon the child, the parents influence her decisions regarding the
profession, choice of school and etc.
The second group of people, participating in choice and decision-making regarding the
profession and the way of life are teachers who can foster student’s autonomy, who will adapt
resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandon all this if it would be
necessary (OECD, 2004).
Problem based learning might be one of the solutions, because as one of the problem based
learning researchers M.Savin-Baden (2002, p.3) states: “problem based learning can offer
students opportunities to engage with complexity and help them both to see: ambiguity and learn
to manage the ambiguities that prevail in professional life”. The latter approach stresses the
importance of personal experience, which is closely linked with the concept of personal stance
identity and autonomy.
How could problem-based learning, as a teaching method, be applied to career decision
making? What is problem-based learning?
Problem-based learning is a term used to describe an approach to teaching the curriculum of
any discipline. There is already a voluminous literature on problem-based learning (PBL).
The principles of problem-based learning can be summarized as following: prior knowledge
activation and elaboration through small-group problem analysis; the construction of problemoriented semantic networks, including contextual cues derived from professionally relevant
problems; and the fostering of epistemic curiosity (Sargautyte, 1999). The principal idea behind
PBL is that students' learning should be based on carefully designed problems "that demand from
the learner acquisition of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency, self-directed learning
strategies, and team participation skills." PBL "replicates the commonly used systemic approach
to resolving problems or meeting challenges that are encountered in life and career" (Barrows
and Kelson: htp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/info.html).
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PBL is therefore an approach to learning that uses a problem, rather than a lecture, to
enhance the learning of students. This approach shifts responsibility for learning onto the
students away from the teachers. "PBL acknowledges the possibility of prior knowledge
(whether subject-specific or not) held by the learner. Further knowledge is acquired on a 'need to
know' basis, enabling the learner to diagnose their own learning needs. Knowledge gained is fed
back into the problem in an interactive loop" (Aldred, 1997). Barrows and Tamblyn describe
PBL as both a curriculum and a process:
The stimulation formats which provide the basis for this method allow for full and free
inquiry and decision making on the part of students. The stimulation begins by providing context
and preliminary information about the problem. Students then direct their own learning,
exploring the problem in much the same way they would with an actual problem ... The
problems, not a set syllabus, provide the stimulus and framework for learning. Knowledge is
acquired through self-directed study and small group discussions, rather than through lectures
(Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980, p. 191).
The quality of problem solution influences the final decision making. This process may be
demonstrated by problem based learning models compiled by M.Savin-Baden (2002, p.126):
Model I - PBL for Epistemological Competence, Model II - PBL for Professional Action, Model
III - PBL for Interdisciplinary Understanding, Model IV - PBL for Transdisciplinary Learning,
Model V - PBL for Critical Contestability. According to M.Savin-Baden, ‘it is only the final
Model, V, that can provide a form of problem-based learning which offers students opportunities
to move towards critical contestability <…> with the increasing shifts towards accountability
and professional and academic competence characterized by the performative slide, in reality
Model V is just a Utopian dream, an ideal that cannot be realized, or an exception in terms of
individual students, particular cohorts of students or students from well-funded institutions’
(2002, p.134).
The Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences of The University of Queensland, which has
introduced PBL, describe the process of learning as the Triple Jump (Video: Problem Based
Learning is not a problem!). The first jump aims at ascertaining what students already know
about the problem used in the class. This process of ascertainment requires students to recall
studied materials relating to the problem at hand. The second jump involves the development, by
students, of the Hypothesis; it challenges students to define the problem used as the stimulus in
the class. The third jump requires students to research the relevant issues to enable them to
explain or justify the Hypothesis. Upon completion of their research, students would typically be
required to apply the law to the facts of the problem and draw their own conclusions. The stages
involved in the solving of a problem include the following:
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1. Problem finding;
2. Preliminary consideration of approaches to the problem;
3. Inquiry strategy;
4. Issue identification;
5. Research;
6. Analysis and consideration of solutions; and
7. Counselling or case management (Kurtz, Wylie and Gold, 1990).
The very problem situation involves the development of critical thinking competence, which
is vital for any decision making. Critical thinking enables the analyses of choice contexts, which
might be presented in the frame of problem situation as well. The analysis of choice contexts
leads to the forming of problem solving strategy that is presented in the adequate interaction
revealing choice possibilities. At the end the quality of problem solution influences the final
decision making. These steps of PBL exercising the Learner’s Experience dimensions may serve
as an educational context for the formation of Informed Intuition, the later being the final result
of decision-making competence. Problem based learning orientated towards the learner
experience dimensions directly deals with the decision making competence, providing the
models of career decision-making which include both rational and alternative–to–rational
perspectives.
The PBL teaching method aims at the acquisition by students of analytical knowledge and
problem-solving skills, which in turn, often require an ability to work as an effective member of
a team.
Counsellors make another group of people, participating in choice and decision-making
regarding the profession and the way of life. According to R.Tatsuno (2002), career guidance in
schools is affected by the changes in companies' hiring and management systems. Those changes
that are taking place in industries will accelerate changes in career guidance. The focus of career
guidance in schools will shift from "which company they choose" to "how students should
develop their own career." It is not guidance from a short–term perspective which is connected
to school education. P.J.Hartung and D.L. Blustein (2002) argue that counsellors can once again
be inspired to give back to their communities by helping all citizens find satisfaction in their
lives.
Counsellors are urged to change and become similar to the role of a coach or a consultant
who works together with the client in order to help clarifying his/her difficulties and setting
individual strategies and plans for life and career. More than decidedness, counsellors should
help clients – students or workers – to improve their decision-making skills and ability to cope
with change, they have to include activities to promote the development of self-esteem and ego10
strength, purposefulness, self-management and life-career planning skills, job search skills, and
skills to cope with career transitions and unemployment (Krieshok, 1998, Harris-Bowlsbey,
1996, quoted in L.Tractenberg and oth., 2000). As B.L.Blanton, M.J.Larrabee (1999) found,
counsellors that were trained in the Improved Career Decision Making workshop were effective
in delivery of career counselling services to clients. An important emerging concept relates to the
notion that exposure to strategies derived from career decision making models alone will not
ensure effective client career decisions. A major implication for counsellor training and practice
is the need to emphasize metacognitive processing of knowledge and skills (gained from
experiential activities) by clients so that they will be motivated to effectively plan for careers.
According to Cognitive Information Processing theory, the main assumptions how career
choice and decision making as cognitive process can be taught are:
1. Career decisions require an interaction between one’s cognitive and emotional
domains.
2. Career decisions require neither the implementation of appropriate problem solving
skills knowing that it is hard to always know all the circumstances that impact the
decision nor the definite outcomes of the decision.
3. The more one knows about self and the work will enhance his/her ability to solve
career relates problems.
4. Career decisions require a capacity to hold large quantities of information about self
and information about the world while the career decisions are made.
5. To hold such information and to stay with the career decision making process
requires motivation on the part of the person
6. Our knowledge of self and word of work is constantly changing and requires up
dating of our cognitive structures.
7. A person’s career identity is developed across the life span from experiences in a
coherent sense of self.
8. A person’s career maturity is determined by an ability to make independent and
responsible career decisions based on knowledge of self and the work world.
9 - 10. The goal of career counselling process is to facilitate a person in developing the
cognitive processes (information- procession skills to make good career decisions
(Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 1991; Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 1996).
Career guidance to be effective in the 21st century can no longer focus on career decisions
alone, but has to broaden its horizons to a more comprehensive approach in order to help the
individuals to think strategically and holistically about work, education, leisure and other aspects
of their life (L.Tractenberg and oth., 2000).
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Skilled support from career professionals may include:

expert advice and holistic guidance to help individuals relate information to their own
personal circumstances,

diagnosis and assessment of skills, aptitudes and learning styles,

supporting individuals to relate their personal experience and skills to the changing
labour market and needs of the local community,

coaching in personal presentation, job-search and self-advocacy,

mentoring to motivate and encourage adults to participate in learning and work
(National Skills Task Force (2nd Report), Ch. 7, p.80).
One of the successive visions of career counselling, which reflects a comprehensive,
integrated and holistic career development process, is J. Denham Career solutions and the career
development model. The career counselling process in her vision would be non-threatening, have
multicultural acceptance and have multiple pathways to cover the wide spectrum of ages,
backgrounds and educational/ occupational levels. Well-considered decision- making processes
would have these features:

facilitated and detailed goal/outcome setting and action planning included,

designed to create positive break-throughs for ‘at risk’ students/clients/employees and
‘stuck’ unmotivated and confused students/clients/employees,

generative in option development, encouraging both traditional and unique
combinations that integrate an individual’s unique strengths and preferences,

offer the greatest opportunities for work satisfaction and employability/work creation,

trigger the positive energy and commitment of the student/client to make wellconsidered choices and any changes needs, no mater how small each step might be, to
work towards their preferred futures (J.Denham, 2003).
Decision making in this model is part of an ongoing career development process together
with planning, action and review, self and process management. According to this model career
practitioners may focus on the comprehensive, integrated and holistic career development
process, may offer the entire career development cycle (career counselling – self and context
understanding, strengths and preferences, opportunity exploration and alignment, decision
making- and career coaching – action planning, employability development, self marketing,
employability maintenance) or they may focus on some facets of the career development cycle
(J.Denham, 2003). Contemporary career theory emphasizes a sequence of learning where
information is processed into knowledge and understanding. Understanding the links between
the past and present help develop the skills needed to plan and create fulfilling futures. C.MaddyBernstein and D.E.Dare (1997) found that the most effective career development programs are
12
systemic, developmental, accessible to all learners, and embedded in the curriculum as part of
the whole process of educating a child for the larger thing called life (p. 2).
The new paradigm of carer guidance and counselling means that it is both to develop
important skills for life and work and to assist with immediate decisions (Educational policy
Analysis, OECD, 2002). So there are four significant implications for schools, as the OECD
analysis recommended. The schools:
1.
must adopt a learning- centred approach, over and above information and advice
approach” building career education into the curriculum.
2.
must take a developmental approach, tailoring the content of career education and
guidance to the developmental stages that students find themselves in, and including
career education classes and experiences throughout schooling, not just at one point.
3.
need to adopt a more student – centred approach through incorporating learning
from and reflecting upon experience, self – direct learning methods, and learning
from significant others such as employers, parents, alumni and older students.
4.
must incorporate a universal approach with career education and guidance forming
part of the education of all students, not just those in particular types of schools or
programme (Educational policy Analysis, OECD, 2002, p.48).
As S.Kerka (2000a) states, some of the best practices in secondary school career guidance
align with the growing body of research demonstrating the value of the following approaches
that enhance relevance, student motivation, and effective transfer of learning: integrated
curriculum; constructivism; mentoring; service learning; contextualized learning, and a sixth
approach – technology. Infusion practices may include an introductory career orientation course,
integration of career exploration topics in subject classes, a thematic interdisciplinary
curriculum, and career portfolios.
While summing up what was said before it is necessary to stress the importance of education
in decision-making (L.Siauciukeniene, 2003) having in mind the personal identity and
autonomy, the level of personal experience, which dominates in decision-making process,
creation the enabling environment helping the students to match rational and emotional levels of
decision making, supporting self-confidence and exercising informational, problem-solving
skills, providing the effective communication.
Conclusion
This article is far from comprehensive study, as we have only skimmed the surface of the
educational model for acquisition of career decision making skills. Many more pieces are
missing. For instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum, relations of career
13
guidance and career counselling, career decision making outcomes, the age of pupils and the
educational interventions, ect. In the different models of career decision making the decision
making skills are understood as the part in definitions of metacognition, transfer of knowledge,
problem orientation, open mindedness, they are parts of the thinking skills together with the
abilities to think creatively, solve problems, visualize, reason, analyze, interpret and know how
to learn. Career decisions alone can no longer be the focus of career guidance to be effective in
the 21st century, but have to be one of the other parts of broad horizons in comprehensive
approach in order to help the individuals to think strategically and holistically about work,
education, leisure and other aspects of their life. Decision-making skills education should have in
mind the personal level of personal experience, it should also create the enabling environment
helping the students to match rational and emotional levels of decision making, supporting selfconfidence and exercising informational, problem-solving skills, providing the effective
communication. The career counselling programs should create a comprehensive, integrated and
holistic career development process. The new paradigm of carer guidance and counselling means
that it is both to develop important skills for life and work and to assist with immediate
decisions.
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