School Leadership and School Culture
Making Sense of Leadership
Kathryn Riley, Effective Schools and Teachers, World Bank
1.
Changing Demands and Expectations
This paper (1) focuses on school leaders: headteachers and school principals.
Increasingly, however, I have begun to conceptualize leadership not as a role-based
function assigned to, or acquired by one person in an organization who uses his or her
power to influence the actions of others, but as a network of relationships among people,
structures and cultures, both within, and across organizational boundaries.
School principals and head teachers are only one source – albeit a critical source – of
school leadership. There are many other actors on the stage, playing diverse roles:
governments, trade unions, school districts, businesses. There are also many within the
school community who also contribute to leadership of the school: teachers, school
governors and pupils themselves.
In discussing school leadership, I use the evidence gathered from an international
research and development project, Effective Leadership in a Time of Change, which
explored the experience of school leaders in over 30 schools in England, Scotland,
Denmark and Australia (2). I also draw on material from a book which I co-edited with
Karen Seashore Louis entitled Leadership on a Wider stage: New Actors, New Roles. (3)
Over recent years, governments of different persuasions have begun to pay closer
attention to what goes on in schools and to the leadership in schools. Schools have
increasingly been assigned the task of righting a range of social and economic ills.
Governments around the world have shared the belief that the macro-problems of the
state and society can be addressed through improving the micro-efficiency of the school.
Rising national expectations about schools have been accompanied by reduced teacher
autonomy and increasing demands for higher performance of teachers and pupils (4).
Expectations and demands on head teachers continue to grow. A 1970s Canadian study
found that only a minority of elementary school principals was involved in attempting to
improve their schools instructional effectiveness (5). This was simply not the task they
had been set or set themselves. The job of the school principal in Canada, as in many
other countries, was to maintain a smooth-running organization and harmonious staff
relationships. Schools functioned in the belief that teachers were competent and needed
to be left alone to teach.
Such assumptions about school principals and teachers have been challenged over recent
years. For good and ill, the job of school principal now extends far beyond maintaining
good relationships within the school. For good and ill, teachers are not left alone to
teach.
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2.
National Constructions
The leadership of a school has increasingly been seen as a key element in the
effectiveness of schools. Parents, policy-makers, teachers, pupils, researchers all agree
that headteachers make a difference. But are they each looking for headteachers to make
the same kinds of difference? Constructions of leadership are profoundly value-laden:

relating to national purposes;

local context;

as well as the skills and attributes that individuals bring to it.
Given the emphasis on leadership, it is unsurprising that there are a growing number of
national initiatives aimed at establishing the essential features of leadership. I want to
mention three – in the UK, the USA and Belgium (Flanders). The three initiatives
comprise models which give weight to particular aspects of leadership. They differ in
their intent. The UK model – the National Professional Qualification for Headship
(NPQH) – is an attempt to specify national standards and its strong emphasis on
outcomes and accountability reflect national priorities over recent years. Both the USA
and the Flemish initiatives are aimed at raising expectations and aspirations. The USA
model is a collective attempt by the Consortium of Chief State School Officers to exert
leverage in the system, whilst the Flemish model is a Government aspiration. The
introduction of national standards is unfeasible in the USA context and seen as
inappropriate in the Flemish one. Nevertheless, all three share an underlying assumption
that the business of running schools is a national concern (6).
The Models:
England: National Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH)

Core qualification

Model emphasises learning outcomes & efficient use of resources
USA: Consortium of Chief State School Officers

Standards for school leaders: point of ‘leverage’ in the system

Highlights ethical foundations of leadership & notion of stewardship: a vision that is
promoted on behalf of the community
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Flemish Belgium (Flanders): Ministerial guidance

Core job description: tool for professional development

Emphasises relationships, motivation, and ability to inspire others and encourage
collaboration and teamwork

A successful principal is described as one who ‘radiates enthusiasm, has a sense of
humour and can admit being wrong.’
It is evident that the context of schooling today is highly political and issues of school
leadership are becoming increasingly part of that political agenda.
3.
Starting Points
Three things need to be borne in mind when trying to make sense of this school
leadership business:
1. There is no one package for school leadership, no single model to be learned and
applied, regardless of culture or context. However, leadership can be developed,
nurtured, supported and challenged.
2. School leadership is beyond the heroic undertakings of one individual. A much
broader conceptualization is needed.
3. School leadership is not static. School leaders do not learn how to ‘do’ leadership
and then stick to set patterns and ways of doing things, along a prescribed set of
known rules. Effective school leaders are often rule breakers. They are also willing
to change in response to a new set of circumstances and the differing needs of
children, young people and teachers.
I was reminded of this by the following description of the life of the school.
The organization of the school must be kept mobile to its inner life. To
one who is accustomed to wind up the machine and trust it to run for fixed
periods, this constantly shifting shape of things will seem unsafe and
troublesome. And troublesome it is, for no fixed plan can be followed; no
two schools are alike; and the same school is shifting, requiring constant
attention and nimble judgement on the part of the (school leader). Arnold
Tomkins, School Administrator, New York 1895 (7).
Arnold Tomkin’s assumption that the school leader has to be ‘nimble of judgement’ is as
true today as it was a hundred years ago. What has changed, however, is the scale and
scope of the areas in which those judgements are exercised.
In our project, Effective Leadership in a Time of Change, we looked at the experiences of
school leaders themselves, as well as the expectations of other stakeholders: teachers,
school governors, parents and pupils. We were interested in exploring how school
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principals, faced with the growing tensions of management and leadership, were able to
reconcile the conflicting demands on them. Were some better at it than others? We were
also interested in the permanence and transferability of leadership qualities.
The language of leadership is itself ambiguous and betrays a lack of clarity or
understanding about distinctive roles and functions. Headship or principalship is often
seen as being synonymous with leadership, although in reality, of course, leadership may
be shared, or may indeed be exercised by different people at different times.
We found in our project that school principals were experiencing the ambivalence of
leadership: problems and opportunities, momentum and direction, frustration and
fulfilment. Perhaps to some extent this has always been true, but the new element is that
the conditions and demands of school leadership have changed, whereas the impulse
which has taken people into that role has not. School principals find themselves caught
out by a range of pressures: a point that came over to us very clearly in our study when
we asked them to draw what it was like to be a school leader. The images are very real
and very powerful (8). I have now used them on a number of occasions and they have a
strong resonance for school principals in a range of cultures and contexts.
4.
What Individuals Bring to Leadership
The personal characteristics and experience which individuals bring to the position
clearly shape leadership. Gender is undoubtedly a factor because of the expectations that
people hold about appropriate behavior for either sex. We found that where there was a
male headteacher and female deputy, a ‘work-wife’ situation sometimes emerged in
which the woman (deputy) took on a substantial amount of the business of taking care of
relationships. We also found some evidence that the job of headship is increasingly
being seen, particularly in the UK context, as ‘men’s business,’ requiring skills (financial
and managerial) and abilities (to control miscreants) which men were deemed more likely
than women to hold.
We found differences in the pathways to leadership for women and men. Promotion was
usually more direct for men, who often benefited from having sponsors. Women’s
aspirations towards headship were often shaped by factors intrinsic to the job, and there is
growing evidence in the UK that women, particularly in primary schools, are becoming
increasingly reluctant to embark on the new NPQH training which they see as
technocratic and over-dominant in their lives.
We also found differences in how the women and male leaders carried out their role. For
example, male school leaders spent more time on their own than their female
counterparts, who spent more time with pupils and other staff. We came to the somewhat
unorthodox conclusion – perhaps one of the ‘heresies’ of our study – that a preferred
leadership style is female. By this we mean a style which is more democratic and less
hierarchical, which takes into account social and emotional issues, and which offers
support as well as challenge. This is not to say that women per se are better leaders than
men. Styles can be learned and unlearned. Our findings in this area confirmed the
substantial literature on interactive leadership styles (9).
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5.
How Others See It – the Child’s View (10)
Through our work on school leadership we have been able to gain some understanding of
what teachers, parents and pupils children think about their school leaders. I want to
comment here on pupils. The children we worked with in our project were very clear
about what really matters in schools. In answer to the question ‘what is a headteacher?’
children thought, for example, that the headteacher ‘holds the school in her hands’. On a
more mundane level, the headteacher was the person who provided everything from
pencils and books to ‘hooks to hang our coats on’. The headteacher ‘walks around the
school to make sure that people treat each other nicely’ and to make sure that the school
is a pleasant place to be. He or she attends lots of meetings. The children thought that
safety and security were important: ‘she makes sure the gates are locked and we are
safe’. ‘He says good morning to mum’, commented one six-year-old. ‘The head gives us
laughter and makes joy in the school’, wrote another six-year-old in an accolade to that
particular headteacher. The headteacher has to be firm but fair but also needs to have ‘a
soft spot’. According to these children, the headteacher undoubtedly influences the
school climate and environment in significant ways.
Children think you become a head ‘by taking an exam in kindness’, by ‘buying a school’,
by ‘reading a book about it’, by ‘going to a school and seeing whether you like children’
or ‘by years of hard work and kindness’. With some prescience in the UK context, one
thought ‘the government lets you’ become a head. One group of nine-year-olds worked
with me to construct a job description for a headteacher, which is given the next section .
6.
Qualifications for Headteacher: ‘An Exam in Kindness’
In order to become a teacher you must:

Have a good education and be able to solve problems

Be very experienced as a teacher

Be able to understand children (what they can do at different ages)

Be easy going but firm

Know how to look after the building (create a nice environment and a safe place for
children)

Know how to take responsibility for things happening in the school and not blame
others

Be able to make children, adults and the community confident about the things they
do in school.

Provide a good example in your behavior, (by not smoking, or drinking in school)

Not to be racist and maker others see that the color of your skin does not matter.

Keep in touch with the local community, letting them know what is happening in the
school
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
Treat children equally

Give everyone the same advantages
Having written the job description, the children then devised the following advertisement:
Headteacher wanted
Come to ‘our’ school. It is a good school. The teachers are good, the
children will welcome you and everyone will treat you well.
If you are going to apply for this job, you will have to be able to
communicate with children, be respectful of them and understand their
point of view. You will need to be well qualified and experienced.
You will need to be energetic, outgoing, confident, mix with people easily
and understand their feelings. You will need to be able to understand
each other, people's beliefs and be a calming influence on the school.
Try your luck and be the best.
Older pupils had ten top priorities for how headteachers should carry out their role:

Share leadership with staff and students

Keep in touch with students

Care for and respect students

Discipline disruptive students

Treat pupils equally

Be accessible for advice

Build an ethos for learning

Create a happy school

Create a safe school

Run the school properly
I was struck by the clarity of the insights from the young people who contributed to our
study. Their contributions are a powerful reminder that young people are an expert voice
– although often an untapped one.
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7.
Whose Expectations Count?
The question put to headteachers in our school leadership project – ‘whose expectations
count?’ – brought no simple answers, as each one tried to weigh the demands, and the
legitimacy of those demands, from different constituents. The evidence from our study is
that the different stakeholders give weight to different aspects of the role, for example:
Children: Be able to make children, adults and the community confident about the things
they do in school
Government: Professional leadership for a school which secures its success and
improvement, ensuring high quality education for and improved standards of learning &
achievement
Headteacher: ‘My job is to try and develop the collegiate nature of the school and
create opportunities for staff to develop professional relationships with colleagues in
other schools’ and ‘Government expects us to deliver an education regardless of
circumstances, regardless of resources, and preferably without too much noise’.
The school leader must be able to ‘read’ the context and pull together all the perceptions
of the various interest groups. Our analysis also suggests that in order to deal with the
complexities of leadership, school principals need to adapt a repertoire of management
styles. As one headteacher put it, ‘In the past, headteachers could adopt one
management style which they polished to perfection’. This is no longer the case.
Headteachers and school principals need to be able to lead and manage in both ‘hard’ and
‘soft’ domains, since leadership is manifested through cohesion and consensus, as well as
through conflict. Leadership really counts when coming face to face with the many
ethical dilemmas which are a constituent part of the job.
Demands on time, differing expectations, and competition among priorities were all
potential ingredients of conflict. Conflict existed in a number of spheres and manifested
itself in different forms. School principals responded to conflict in various ways as, for
example, ‘referee’, ‘player’, or ‘torch bearer’: in other words, acting an neutral arbiter,
becoming involved, or using the conflict to forge principles and policy.
As the ‘referee’, school principals were involved in mediating conflict between and
within different groups: parents, staff and students. At its most extreme, mediating
conflict could involve breaking up a fight between staff or between parents. Even where
the examples are less dramatic, managing conflict is not easy. A school is an intensely
political organization and conflict is one aspect of the micro-politics. A focus on the
micro-politics reinforces the importance of the political leadership skills of the
headteacher.
School leadership is put to the test not only by the micro-politics but also by the range of
competing demands. School principals who want to spend time with children, on
learning and teaching or on professional development find they have to give priority to
external relationships, paperwork, policy and politics. This inevitably creates deepseated tensions between maintaining or developing, and between managing or leading a
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school.
Changing relationships and the growing expectations of various groups create new
demands. Parents are now more aware of their rights, and governors more aware of their
role in accountability. Students are more questioning. The boundaries of school
leadership have altered considerably and school principals now have a range of external
constituents or stakeholders, including future ‘customers’.
The power of school principals has undoubtedly shifted dramatically over recent years in
response to a range of external pressures. The tension is in managing the ‘fit’: between
the external world and the internal world of the school, between a sharper focus on staff
and pupil performance, and classroom pedagogy. The school leader has to create the
conditions for learning for staff and pupils; for respecting and enhancing staff autonomy
within clear boundaries; and for leading children towards greater autonomy and
independence. School leadership is about meeting and exceeding old expectations and
creating new expectations in children, staff and parents.
8.
Learning to Lead
But how do they do it? How do school principals learn to think about these
complexities? I want to touch on some of the ‘tools’ which we have developed from the
project which enable school principals to reflect and learn.
Tool 1:
Dimensions of leadership (11)
Learning to exercise more effective leadership, from the evidence of our study at least, is
about managing motivating and inspiring people. It may come from individual one-toone work with teachers, pupils, parents and board members, or at more of a remove,
creating the impetus within an organization that encourages and enables people and
enables people to play an active part in school life. We found some clearly identifiable
differences in how school leaders used and developed their people skills across three
identifiable dimensions.
The internal – external dimension
There were clear differences in the emphasis which school leaders put on their
relationships with the internal school community and the external world. Philosophically
it might be distinguished by overt beliefs such as ‘I believe I must protect and market the
school’, as against ‘My job is to be with children and teachers’. Or it might spring less
from personal conviction than from circumstances and context.
The pupil-centered – teacher-centered dimension
When we looked at the groups of people with whom school principals spent their time
with, clear differences again emerged. Some school principals spent a great deal of the
day with pupils, either in a teaching/counselling/disciplinary situation. Others saw little
of pupils and spent more time with teachers, individually or collectively. This may
reflect a difference in philosophy between those who see pupils as a catalyst for change
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and those who see teachers as the vehicle for change. Other school leaders put greater
emphasis on time with staff and on staff needs. This implicit or overt philosophy was
that pupils would be the ultimate beneficiaries of an attempt to meet the needs of staff.
The individual – collective dimension
The individual – collective dimension distinguishes between philosophy and/or behavior
which is oriented in the direction of working more through individuals or more through
collectives. There were school principals in the study who spent some time in lobbying.
This took place both within the internal school community and outside it (with local
politicians, officials and board representatives). School leaders also spent time with
individual pupils and with individual members of staff, encouraging, motivating and
counselling, sanctioning and disciplining, and in some cases grooming individuals for
promotion. Other school leaders spent more time in building collective relationships.
They tended to exercise influence less through individuals than through groups or indeed
through the whole school collective. For example, some school principals used staff
meetings and collective occasions, such as school assemblies, to foster a corporate
identity. Some used self-evaluation, staff development and forward planning as
collective mechanisms to demonstrate that decision making was a corporate enterprise.
These three dimensions can be represented as three intersecting axes on which we could
place any given school principal, or on which any principal might place her/himself:
individual
teacher
external
internal
pupil
collective
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These three dimensions are complex, shifting, dynamically, interrelated and real. They
differ by country (which can be related to cultural and historic factors) and by school
sector. Primary headteachers were more likely than secondary headteachers to spend
time with pupils in a teaching/learning situation and with teachers on curriculum
development. They reported less ‘lobbying’ activities and fewer tensions among group
interests: differences largely explained by the vertical departmental (subject area)
divisions within secondary schools and the layers of hierarchical responsibility. For both
primary and secondary headteachers, the culture of curriculum leadership was a point of
tension.
Differences are also capricious and determined by ‘happenstance’ and individual style.
School leaders operated in particular ways because that was what they had always done
before. Sometimes they chose to act in new ways in reaction to the past. It is important
for school leaders to be aware of whom they are spending their time with and how they
are spending that time, since these decisions reflect implicit priorities and affect other
choices. It is important that they are clear about the ‘why’ of these choices and the ‘how’
of doing things somewhat differently.
Tool 2:
‘The MacDonald Medieval Management Matrix’ (12)
Our research was designed as a professional development opportunity for participating
school principals. One of the participating headteachers, Gus MacDonald, who had
wrestled with the ethical dilemmas and ‘heresies’ of leadership, wrote his own reflections
on his attempts to reconcile these tensions in the day-to-day practice of a large
comprehensive school in the once thriving shipbuilding conurbation of the Clyde in
Scotland. He called it, slightly facetiously, ‘The MacDonald Medieval Management
Matrix’. It is a useful tool to help school principals reflect on how they make decisions.
In the grid overleaf, the horizontal axis refers to the leader’s state of knowledge in
relation to any situation or decision, while the vertical axis refers to his or her awareness
of that state of knowledge.
Aware
3 Anxiety
1 Confidence
Known
Unknown
2 Surprise
4 Bliss
Unaware
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The first quadrant, Confidence, represents the state of mind where the leader is aware
that his/her knowledge is sound and sufficient enough to form the necessary judgement or
make the necessary decisions. Those looking at leadership from the outside often take
the common sense view that this is how decisions are made. The reality, of course, is far
removed from this. Instead, leaders often make decisions and judgements in the
condition of Surprise. This is the condition in which the leader is unaware of what
he/she knows until called upon to make a decision. What they demonstrate is the ability
to think upon their feet, drawing upon a profound depth of experience and by doing this
they inspire confidence and trust.
The third quadrant is Anxiety, the condition in which leaders feel that most decisions and
judgements are made. The shrewd leader will, of course, reduce the uncertainty as far
possible. It is a condition which can lead to paralysis of leadership and therefore requires
considerable attention. The fourth quadrant is Bliss, which represents lack of awareness
of lack of knowledge. Awareness of lack of knowledge is Anxiety; lack of awareness of
lack of knowledge is Bliss. The trouble, however, with being unaware of what we need to
know, and do not know, is that we lack both prompt and motive to make us find out. Gus
commented that if this was a mediaeval matrix this particular quadrant would be marked
‘Terra incognita – beware, monsters lurk here!’
Good leaders will of course think hard and look widely when making a decision –
identifying where the monsters are, for example, the school governors who will oppose a
decision, the teacher who will not co-operate. As a leadership activity, they will consult
widely, build consensus wherever possible, bringing together different views, sets of
knowledge and experiences to bear on an issue or problem. But they must also manage
conflict and competing expectations when they are making those difficult decisions.
It is surely good leadership and good management to be as knowledgeable as possible
about any decision or situation. The greater the degree of certainty, and the more one is
aware of that, the greater is the confidence with which leadership can be delivered. Selfknowledge is a key attribute of effective leadership.
9.
Thinking about Leadership
We concluded from our study that one of the essential elements of effectiveness in
educational leadership is the kind of metacognition exemplified by Gus MacDonald.
Self-awareness will not by itself make a person an effective leader, since the ability to
think about one’s situation is only part of the task, although an essential part. And, as we
know from many people in positions of power, ignorance is often bliss, and serendipity
often accompanies the unstudied or even the ‘wrong’ decision. Intuition, antennae,
‘vibes’, ‘reading the context’ are inherent, if implicit, skills of effective leadership but
they are not just ‘gut instincts’. They arise from emotional and social intelligence linked
to a well-rehearsed ‘cognitive databank’ of principles and experiential lessons which
have been thoroughly internalized.
The metacognition described by Gus McDonald is something which can be developed.
The tools provided above – the Dimensions of Leadership tool, the Gus Matrix – have
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been used to help develop that metacognition. The different accounts of leadership are
also useful tools: the experiences of school principals themselves (as presented in Images
of Leadership), as are the accounts of pupils’ voices and images. We have also reported
on the perceptions of teachers, parents and governors (2). School principals need to be
given the tools to reflect on the priorities, the areas of conflict and tension, the ethical
dilemmas, as well as the values, expectations and the professional issues about teaching
and learning.
There are also many useful tools and concepts which have been developed elsewhere in
the management literature. There is the Mintzberg notion (13) of strategic thinking, the
ability to see behind, beyond, through. The notion of continuous activity which is
reflected in our dimensions of leadership model. Within this, there is the notion of
strategic conversation, a conversation driven by rigorous thinking but which is as
freewheeling as possible. School leaders need to perfect the art of strategic conversation,
taking opportunities in a variety of circumstances to use discussions to move forward the
boundaries of thinking within the school community.
There is the notion of strategic intent, which can be thought of as the process of coping
with turbulence through an intuitive understanding of what is occurring. It is the ability
to read the rules. A recognition that whilst a turbulent environment cannot be rationally
driven, this does not mean that a school’s development is dependent on random factors.
(13). Part of a strategic intent in an educational context comes from having a clear notion
of what a ‘learning community’ looks like.
Canadian researchers have developed a clear articulation of the features which
characterize a learning community (14):

Symbiotic relationships based in trust; purpose; team work;

A school development climate in which visions and values are articulated and shared;

A pedagogical intent, reflected in the high expectations and productive learning
environment which characterizes the school.
But strategic intent also stems from self-knowledge and a recognition of the mobility and
fragility of leadership – a recognition of the need to be learning constantly, reflecting and
responding to new conditions.
That is why in our conclusion to the study we emphasize so strongly the questions of
context and do not suggest some universal product or recipe for leadership. When
deregulation has been pursued, when decision-making has been localized, when safetynets and supports have been withdrawn, when policy parameters dictate particular
courses of action, all of these circumstances add to the specificity and complexity of the
climate in which decisions must be made at school level.
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The challenge for the professional development of school leaders therefore lies on at least
three fronts:

first, enabling leaders or potential leaders to articulate the professional values that
underpin the school leader’s role;

secondly, developing their capacity to adopt consistent approaches to the complex
ethical dilemmas of everyday school life;

thirdly, developing the capacities of school leaders to think about the internal
complexities of the schools, as well as the external demands, and to see the
connections between their leadership and that of others, both within and outside the
school community. Underpinning all of this must be the passion and commitment for
teaching and learning and for young people – which is what, quintessentially, school
leadership is all about.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the ‘Effective Schools and Teachers Thematic Group’ of the World
Bank for the opportunity to make the presentation on which this paper is based (1).
The project ‘Effective School Leadership in a Time of Change’ was a collaborative
project with colleagues from my own Institution, working in partnership with the
University of Strathclyde in Scotland, the Royal Danish School of Educational Studies,
Denmark, and Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. I would therefore also like to
offer my thanks to that team, as well as to the school principals and members of the
school communities in our study who played such a key part in an enjoyable and
challenging project.
References and sources
1. This paper is based on a presentation given at the World Bank on 13th January 1999.
2. Some of the core findings from this project have been published in: MacBeath, J.
(1998). (Ed) Effective School Leadership: Responding to Change. London: Paul
Chapman (ISBN 1 85396 413 1).
3. Riley, K.A. and Seashore Louis, K. (forthcoming). Leadership on a Wider Stage:
New Actors, New Roles. London: Falmer Press.
4. For a discussion of the impact of globalisation on school leadership see: MacBeath,
J., Moos, L. and Riley, K.A. (1996). ‘Leadership in a changing world.’ In:
Leithwood, K.A., Chapman, K., Corson, C., Hallinger, P. and Hart, A. (Eds)
International Handbook for Educational Leadership and Administration. The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
5. Leithwood, K.A. and Montgomery, D.J. (1982). ‘The role of the elementary school
principal in program improvement’, Review of Educational Research, 52, 3, 309-39.
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6. These issues are developed in: Riley, K.A. (1998). ‘Creating the leadership climate’,
International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1, 2, 137-53 [A new journal
published by Taylor and Francis]
7. Quoted in: Louis, K.S., Kruse, S.D. and Associates (1995). Professionalism and
Community. California: Corwin Press.
8. MacBeath, J., Riley, K.A. and Kruchov, C. (1995). Images of Leadership. (ISBN 1
805 98 547 2). [Available from the Centre for Educational Management, The
Roehampton Institute]
9. See for example, Rosener, J. (1990). ‘Ways women lead’, Harvard Business Review,
November/December.
10. The material presented in this section is taken from: Riley, K.A. (1998). Whose
School is it Anyway? London: Falmer Press (ISBN 0-7507-0713-5).
11. This section is taken from: Riley, K.A. and MacBeath, J. (1998). ‘Effective leaders
and effective schools.’ In: MacBeath, J. (Ed) Effective School Leadership:
Responding to Change. London: Paul Chapman (ISBN 1 85396 413 1).
12. MacDonald, A. (1998). ‘Postscript.’ In: MacBeath, J. (Ed) Effective School
Leadership: Responding to Change. London: Paul Chapman (ISBN 1 85396 413 1).
13. For a discussion of these issues see Caldwell, B. (forthcoming). ‘Leadership in the
creation of world class schools.’ In: Riley, K.A. and Louis, K. S. (Eds) Leadership
on a Wider Stage: New Actors, New Roles. London: Falmer Press.
14. Sackney, L. and Walker, K. (1999). Learning Communities for Effective Schools.
Paper presented at the International Congress on School Effectiveness and
Improvement, San Antonio, January.
Please address correspondence about this paper to:
Professor Kathryn Riley
Director, Centre for Educational Management
The Roehampton Institute
Froebel College,
Roehampton Lane
London SW 15 5PJ.
England
Phone (44) 1813923441
Fax (44) 1813923022
Email: <kariley@compuserve.com>
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