Separating Girls and Boys
Running head: SEPARATING GIRLS AND BOYS
Effects of Separating Girls and Boys in Coeducational Classrooms on Algebra Achievement
Stephen Diermayer
Auburn University in Montgomery
1
Separating Girls and Boys
2
Abstract
With the increasing number of women in the workforce, gender gaps in math skills and
pursuits in math-related fields continue to be a main concern. Researchers have examined
various factors that may contribute to the disparity. Some of these include anxiety, attitudes,
curriculum, self-confidence and choice in mathematics. The purpose of this study is to determine
if there will be a significant difference in algebra achievement when girls and boys are physically
separated from each other within the same math classroom. Girls will be seated on one side of
the room and boys on the other. It’s possible that the girls will develop a sense of community and
overcome ever present feelings of intimidation and self-consciousness. Further, it’s possible that
the girls will unite and actually compete against the boys, thereby improving their math
performance. Of course, the same could happen for the boys as well. This study will track
algebra achievement within and between two large comparable Montgomery County public
schools. In half of the algebra classes at Lee High School and Jefferson Davis High School,
students will be separated from each other by sitting on different sides of the class. The
population for this study is the total students taking algebra at the two schools. The sample will
be approximately half of those students from both schools. Unit test scores and nine-weeks
(quarterly) exam scores will be collected and statistically evaluated using an analysis of variance
(ANOVA) to determine if there are significant performance differences between the groups.
Variations between the groups will be analyzed using the F test with a significance level of .05.
Separating Girls and Boys
3
Introduction
The gender gap in mathematics between males and females continues to be a major
concern as more and more women enter the American workforce. According to the U.S. Census
Bureau, the percentage of women in the workforce has jumped from 43% in 1970, to 60% in
2002. Researchers have examined various factors that influence female achievement, attitudes
and choice in mathematics. In social settings, females commonly feel self-conscious around
boys. Such feelings can manifest in the classroom as well. Girls’ inhibitions in the classroom can
lead to less verbal participation. Boys are frequently outspoken and command more of the
teachers’ time and attention. It seems logical that many of the problems arising from gender
interactions could be alleviated by simply separating girls from boys in the classroom. The
question is whether such a separation will yield academic achievement improvements and/or
psychosocial benefits. Research findings are mixed. Some suggest that many girls do better in
single-sex schools, where they often attain higher levels of academic performance and career
aspirations than girls in coeducational settings. Studies of computer science classes found
supporting evidence of the positive effects of all-girls classes at the high school level (Crombie,
Abarbanel, & Trinneer, 2002), and at the middle school and secondary levels (Swain & Harvey,
2002). “Girls in single-sex schools achieve more, have higher self-esteem, and are more
interested in subjects like math and science” (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Many studies have been
conducted abroad on the merits of single-sex education. In a review of single-sex school
environments world-wide, Mael (1998) found them to be more beneficial for girls than boys. As
part of the Single-Sex Education Pilot Project (SSEPP) in ten high schools in rural and urban
Western Australia, Rennie and Parker (2002) concluded that all-girls classes were quieter and
more cooperative, and that all-boys classes were more competitive and rowdier. While girls
Separating Girls and Boys
4
benefited from not being subjected to taunts, ridicule, and sexual harassment from boys, the boys
lost their outlet for displaying their masculinity and macho image. The girls gained confidence
and freedom from male oppressors. The boys developed more behavioral problems. On the other
hand, teachers reported a richer and more compelling argument for single-sex classrooms. It
gave them an opportunity to adjust their science instructional strategy to address prior
educational deficiencies. For boys, they could incorporate ways to improve poor written and
verbal communications. Dealing with behavioral issues would be worth the gains in
communication skills. For girls, they could increase the amount of hands-on experience and
problem solving opportunities. New Zealand has a large number of single-sex schools in the
public sector. This enables researchers there to carry out controlled comparisons between singlesex and coeducational schools. After controlling for student ability factors, prior achievement,
social and ethnic mix, Harker (2000) found no evidence of academic superiority of either type of
school in terms of English, mathematics and science. But, Harker didn’t mention anything about
pre-enrollment, curriculum or pedagogical differences that may exist between the school types.
The findings in other countries/cultures should be used to temper, not discourage or dissuade
examination of these possibilities within our own country. What works in one country may not
work in another, and vice versa. Of course, the potential benefits of single-sex classrooms in
public schools in the United States aren’t possible due to Title IX legislative mandates against
sex discrimination. So, private schools serve as our only legal test bed. But, seating
rearrangements within the public classroom are certainly legal and potentially beneficial. The
purpose of this study is to determine the effects on algebra achievement as a result of girls and
boys being physically separated from each other in the mixed-sex public classroom.
Separating Girls and Boys
5
Problem
Will there be a significant difference in female algebra achievement when girls and boys are
physically separated from each other in the classroom?
Null Hypotheses
Herein, “separated” is defined as girls and boys sitting on different sides of the same classroom.
The rejection criteria for each of the following hypotheses is when p<.05.
1. There will be no significant difference in algebra achievement of girls who are separated
compared to girls who are not separated.
2. There will be no significant difference in algebra achievement of boys who are separated
compared to boys who are not separated.
3. There will be no significant difference in algebra achievement of girls who are separated
compared to boys who are not separated.
4. There will be no significant difference in algebra achievement of boys who are separated
compared to girls who are not separated.
5. There will be no significant difference in algebra achievement of girls who are not
separated and boys who are not separated.
Dependent and Independent Variables
The independent variable will be the classroom seating arrangement. Manipulating this
variable will be as simple as deciding which half of the classroom to assign each of the sexes.
The dependent variable will be academic achievement in algebra. Unit test scores and quarterly
exam scores will be the instrument for measuring the dependent variable. Extraneous variables
include race, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), ability level, student motivation, career
aspirations, teachers/teaching style, and curriculum.
Separating Girls and Boys
6
Review of Literature
Research approaches the gender gap in mathematics from two angles. One approach is to
examine female attitudes and achievement directly. The other is to examine psychosocial
influences on female attitudes and math achievement. Society tends to characterize females as
emotional and males as thinkers. So, it’s often hard to separate academics from behavior and
draw accurate independent conclusions. It’s even hard when evaluating single-sex classrooms
and single-sex schools. Nonetheless, the research provides a body of knowledge worth
considering regarding decisions about curriculum, teaching strategies, and classroom
environments.
Studies have examined female achievement in general coursework. In elementary school,
girls perform better than boys in most subjects, but their test scores decline steadily through
college (Sadker et al, 1994; Owens, Smothers, Love, 2003). The decline was attributed to girls
being excluded in the classroom, in textbooks, and extracurricular activities.
Studies have examined female achievement in mathematics. Entwisle, Alexander, &
Olson (1994) found that math test scores by gender at the elementary level are equivalent. By the
end of the middle school years, a gender gap emerged in math among high-scoring students. The
study found that boys’ gains in math reasoning achievement were more sensitive to resources
outside the home than girls’. Spending more time out in the neighborhood or away from home
than girls, boys are more exposed to intellectual development activities and facilities such as
recreation centers, organized sports, complex games, and working at jobs. Conversely, boys from
poor neighborhoods ultimately suffer mathematically from the absence of these contextual
resources. Burbridge’s (1991) analysis of the 1988 National Educational Longitudinal Study data
Separating Girls and Boys
7
showed a greater variability in math scores of males than for females. The variation is potentially
attributed to the variability of neighborhood resources in early adolescence.
Maple & Stage (1991) studied the influences on choice of math/science college major by
gender and ethnicity. Four groups were established; White males, White females, Black males,
and Black females. For all groups, they found the number of science and math courses students
planned to take as sophomores (sophomore choice) was a significant predictor of the future field
of study in college. However, they also found notable differences among the four groups. For
Black females, mother’s education, standardized test scores, and math attitudes influenced
sophomore choice. For Black males, mother’s education, math attitudes, sophomore choice of
major, and senior math/science completed influenced college major choice. For White females,
sophomore choice of major and math/science completed had the greatest influence. For White
males, sophomore choice, senior math/science completed, and high school grades (self-reported)
influenced their choice about college major the most.
Studies have focused on factors influencing female interest in mathematics. Catsambis
(1994) looked at the development of gender and racial-ethnic differences between Whites,
African-Americans, and Latinas, in learning opportunities (ability-grouping, course
requirements), achievement (average test scores and grades), and career choice (interest, attitude,
self-confidence) in mathematics. Before and after data was obtained from a two year national
longitudinal study involving 1052 public schools and 14,000 students. In 8th grade, achievement
and learning opportunity were more a function of racial-ethnic differences than gender.
Conversely, gender differences were stronger than racial-ethnic differences concerning choice.
Similar results were found in the 10th grade. However, even greater differences were found
Separating Girls and Boys
8
concerning choice. The study concluded that females become less interested in math throughout
their high school years.
Cohen & Kosler (1991) examined factors that cause females to avoid mathematics. It
involved a survey of 316 students of markedly different socioeconomic levels enrolled in precalculus courses and above in a Texas high school. More often, males felt their gender had
greater aptitude for math than females. They possessed greater confidence about doing well in
subsequent math classes. They also thought math as more useful than girls did. Finally, they felt
that success in math boosted their popularity. Conversely, females believe that men dislike
women who are as smart or as better than they are. Ironically, the average grades of females
were the same or higher than that of males. Yet, females lacked self-confidence in their abilities
toward math. The study suggests that disinterest in math-related careers is partially attributed to
female insecurity and lack of self-confidence.
Interviews of high school students were done to examine factors that influence student
beliefs about themselves toward mathematics (Signer et al, 1996). The factors studied include:
ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status (SES), math achievement (enrolled courses, not grades) level,
and gender. Study findings concluded that Black students in low level math courses are three
times more likely to anticipate attending college than their White counterparts. Findings also
support the research that: dispels the myth that Blacks have little academic self-confidence, that
minorities are not easily discouraged by low achievement, and that female students enrolled in
high level math courses were the least likely to desire further enrollment in these type courses.
Findings also suggest that SES increases the aspirations of high achievement Blacks. Conversely,
SES has little effect on the aspirations of Whites, regardless of their achievement level. Formed
from students’ experience, concrete attitudes are generally more relevant and meaningful.
Separating Girls and Boys
9
Mickelson (1990) and Ainsworth-Darnell and Downy (1998) confirmed that concrete attitudes
are related to grades. Abstract attitudes are formed from the dominant ideology that anyone can
become successful by doing well in school. Because these beliefs are unconnected to students’
daily lives, research shows a weak link between abstract attitudes and behavior. Overall, the
academic achievement level of Blacks and Latinos is well below that of Whites. Goldsmith
(2004) found Black and Latino beliefs to be more optimistic and more pro-school in segregatedminority schools, especially when the schools employ many minority teachers. Though not
necessarily sufficient to overcome the White-Latino and White-Black achievement gap, this
study suggests that school environment can possibly reduce the achievement gap.
Nichols (2001) studied the impact of clique group affiliations on academic achievement
in both, low-track and regular-track algebra classes. The study examined two high schools, 230
students and seven female teachers. Overall, students with clique group affiliations experienced
significantly greater academic achievement (t(44)=2.48, p<.01). Girls had significantly higher
academic achievement than boys (t(108)=3.21, p<.01). The study provides supporting evidence
of the power of student cliques and their potential impact on academic performance.
There’s a growing body of literature contending that females flourish in single-sex
environments. Campbell and Evans (1997) found that females in a single-sex class had
statistically significant lower mathematics anxiety than did the females in a coeducational class (t
(15)= -3.37, p<.005). Lower anxiety levels appear to have positive impact on self-concept.
Females in the single-sex classes are more likely to enroll in advanced math classes in high
school, thus keeping the window of opportunity open for potentially higher paying and more
prestigious careers. Conversely, anxiety level decreased for males in the same coeducational
classroom. These findings support Cramer’s (1989) findings that the superior attitude of male
Separating Girls and Boys
10
peers may negatively impact the mathematics self-concept of females. Wood & Brown (1997)
found greater algebra-1 scores for girls in all-girls classes compared to mixed-sex classes.
Streitmatter (1997) performed a two-year qualitative study to examine female attitudes
about themselves and their classmates in a girls-only seventh grade pre-algebra and eighth grade
algebra classes. Surveys indicated that girls were more likely to ask questions in the single-sex
classes than their other coed classes. The girls felt that a girls-only setting enhanced their ability
to learn math and their view of themselves as mathematicians. Without exception, they preferred
a girls-only environment over coeducational classrooms. This is particularly important because
these girls were hand selected among those with the highest test scores, grades, and teacher
recommendations. This exposes the fact that even the brightest girls mathematically suffer from
similar insecurities as lower achieving females.
Baker (2002) conducted a study in two each single-sex seventh grade math and science
classes having high minority (mostly Latinos) enrollment. Although girls earned higher grades
than boys, it was inconclusive that improved grades were entirely due to the single-sex
environment. Factors contributing to the higher grades could’ve been fewer disruptions and more
cooperation in groups in the all-girls classes. It was acknowledged that girls had better selfconcepts, feelings of empowerment, and better attitudes toward math and science. But, Baker
pointed out affective improvements alone will not increase the number of girls who choose to
pursue math or science.
Jackson (2002) conducted research in England on whether single-sex classrooms would
enhance the learning experiences of girls and/or boys. Enrollment was around 550 students in
seventh through eleventh grade with mainly White, working-class and middle-class backgrounds.
The school introduced single-sex math classes for seventh grade only. Among the girls, single-
Separating Girls and Boys
11
sex classes were perceived favorably. The girls felt more confident. They were not made fun of
for getting something wrong. They didn’t feel embarrassed for scoring low marks. 80% of the
girls wanted to continue in single-sex classes beyond seventh grade. The boys’ perception of
single-sex math class was very different. 72% of the boys favored mixed classes. In curriculumas-usual classes, the boys got punished more for misbehaving, chatting with their mates, fighting
and roughness. They also reported getting worse marks.
In Australia, Parker and Rennie (2002) found the all-girls science classroom to be more
cooperative, manageable and quieter. On the other hand, all-boys classes tended to be more
competitive and rowdier. Teachers also reported that it was much easier to implement genderinclusive science instructional strategies to address prior educational deficiencies. For instance,
teachers could focus on improving the poor written and oral communications skills of boys. For
girls, teachers could provide more hands-on experiences and open-ended problem solving
opportunities.
Methods
The research team will collect algebra achievement data from two large Montgomery
County public high schools. The research hopes to determine if separating girls and boys within
the same classroom will improve female algebra achievement. The population for this study will
be all algebra students at Lee High School plus Jefferson Davis High School. The sample will be
half of those students from each of the schools. The experimental group will be the students who
attend classes chosen for gender separation. Gender separation is defined as girls seated on one
side of the room and boys on the other. One class for each algebra level, for each school will be
randomly selected for gender separation. The control group will be all of the students who attend
algebra classes not chosen for gender separation. There will be a total of four groups; separated
Separating Girls and Boys
12
and not separated students, by gender. Math scores will be gathered from each school for every
algebra class and analyzed by the study team. The identity of individual subjects will not be
germane or conveyed in this study. Therefore, consent forms will not be required. A letter to
each of the two school superintendents will sent explaining and requesting permission to conduct
the experiment (see Appendix).
Experimental Design
This study will use a factorial design method to examine four groups. An analysis of
variance (ANOVA) will be used to find out whether there are significant differences between the
means of the groups for all algebra course levels. Variations of sample means will be analyzed
using the F test with a significance level of .05. Comparisons will be made to determine whether
to accept/reject any or all of the null hypotheses. The instrument for this study will be unit test
scores and quarterly exam scores.
A meeting will be held between the study team, teachers and superintendents
approximately three months before the 2006 school year. A workshop will follow to convey
teacher expectations, requirements, and confidentiality matters. One class will be randomly
chosen for treatment from each of the algebra subject levels at both schools. One concern is for
teachers to avoid gender bias. It will be clearly communicated that teachers must balance their
time and attention toward the girls and boys in an equitable and undetectable manner by the
students.
On the first day of school, teachers will direct the experimental group students to their
seating assignments in the separated format. The teacher will explain to the students that the
school is conducting a trial in certain classes in hopes to improve student behavior. From heron,
Separating Girls and Boys
13
the students will hopefully be unaware that a mathematics achievement experiment is underway.
At no time will the study team roam the halls or classrooms during the school day.
At the end of each quarter, all of the algebra teachers from both schools will populate and
send an EXCEL spreadsheet of unit test scores and quarterly exam scores to the study team
electronically. Test score percentages will be delivered by subject, by gender, by student,
excluding names. The study team will gather and analyze the data using mean, standard
deviation, ANOVA, and F test. This process will continue for three years. Periodic meetings of
the principles will be held to discuss problems, questions, and/or study modifications. At the
conclusion of the study, the study team will present its findings and recommendations to the
school superintendents and other dignitaries, particularly the teachers who made it all possible.
Data Collection
Customized EXCEL spreadsheets will be used to gather all data needed for the study (see
forms in Appendix). Nominal data will be used to categorize student demographics. This will
include gender (male=1, female=2), race (Caucasian = 1, African-American =2, Other = 3).
Ordinal data will be used to measure math achievement. At the end of each quarter, the math
teachers at both schools will enter the data into the spreadsheet and electronically transmit a copy
of the file to the study team. The study team will compile the data and perform the statistical
analyses.
Design Problems
This study focuses strictly on algebra achievement. After a few weeks in school, it’s
anticipated that students will not think much about their new seating arrangement. Therefore, the
Hawthorne effect should be negligible by the time the first unit test is administered. The John
Henry effect should be even less an issue since the students in the control group will think they
Separating Girls and Boys
14
were lucky to be left alone. Results of this study should be reliable and valid considering that Lee
and JD are equivalent high schools in terms of SES, curriculum, and teachers. It is also
anticipated that other extraneous factors such as student motivation and career aspiration will
have little to no differential effect on the outcome of the study. Teacher favor or attention to one
gender over the other will be controlled with proper coaching and training during the pre-stage of
the experiment.
Proposed Statistical Analysis
Unit test scores and quarterly exam scores will be the instruments for this study. Analyses
of the data collected will be performed on a quarterly and yearly basis for three years. The
quarterly results will be used to monitor performance swings and trends throughout the year.
Improvements in performance must withstand the test of time. Therefore, yearly results will be
used to draw conclusions about achievement significance. The descriptive statistics calculated
for each group will be the mean and standard deviation. The mean will provide a good indication
of the stand-alone achievement for each group. The standard deviation will indicate the
achievement spread of each group about the mean. The only treatment for this study is the
separation of girls and boys in the classroom. Therefore, one-way ANOVA’s will be run using
unit test scores and quarterly exam scores as the dependent variable and gender separation as the
independent variable. This will enable the research team to determine whether there are
significant differences between the means of the groups. Variations associated with the null
hypotheses between the groups will be analyzed using the F tests with a significance level of .05.
Separating Girls and Boys
15
References:
Ainsworth-Darnell and Downy (1998)
Baker, D. (2002). Good intentions: an experiment in middle school single-sex science and
mathematics classrooms with high minority enrollment. Journal of Women and
Minorities in Science and Engineering (8) 1-23.
Burbridge, L.C. (1991). The interaction of race, gender, and socioeconomic status in education
outcomes. Center for Research on Women Working Paper Series No. 246. NEED APA
HELP
Campbell, K.T., & Evans, C. (1997). Gender issues in the classroom: a comparison of
mathematics anxiety. Education (117)3, 332-339.
Catsambis, S. (1994). The path to math: gender and racial-ethnical differences in
mathematics participation from middle school to high school. Sociology of
Education 67(3), 199-215.
Cohen, R.M., & Kosler, J. (1991). Gender equity in high school math: a study of female
participation and achievement. Reports – Research/Technical.
Crombie, G., Arbarbanel, T., & Trinneer, A. (2002). All-female classes in high school computer
science: positive effects in three years of data. Journal of Educational Computing
Research (27)4, 385-409.
Entwisle, D.R., Alexander, K.L., & Olson, L.S. (1994). The gender gap in math: its
possible origins in neighborhood effects. American Sociological Review.
59(6), 822-838.
Goldsmith, P.A. (2004). Schhols’ racial mix, students’ optimism, and black-white and
latino-white achievement gaps. Sociology of Education (77)2, 121-147.
Harker, R. (2000). Achievement, gender, and the single-sex/coed debate. Journal of Sociology of
Education (21)2 [No pagination].
Jackson, C. (2002). Can single-sex classes in co-educational schools enhance the learning
experiences of girls and/or boys? An exploration of pupils’ perceptions. British
Educational Research Journal (28)1, 37-48.
Mael, F.A. (1998). Single-sex and coeducational schooling: relationships to socioemotional and
academic development. Review of Educational Research (68)2, 101-129.
Maple, S.A., & Stage, F.K. (1991). Influences on the choice of math/science major by
gender and ethnicity. American Educational Research Journal (28)1, 37-60.
Mickelson, R.A. (1990). The attitude-achievement paradox among black adolescents.
Separating Girls and Boys
16
Sociology of Education (63)1, 44-61.
Nichols, J.D., & White, J. (2001). Impact of peer networks on achievement of high
school algebra students. The Journal of Educational Research (95)5, 267-273.
Owens, S.L., Smothers, B.C., & Love, F.E. (2003). Are girls victims of gender bias in our
nation’s schools?. Journal of Instructional Psychology (30)2, 131-136.
Parker, L.H., & Rennie, L.F. (2002). Teachers’ implementation of gender-inclusive instructional
strategies in single-sex and mixed-sex science classrooms. International Journal of
Science Education (24)9, 881-897.
Sadker, M., & Others. (1994). Gender equity in the classroom: the unfinished agenda. College
Board Review 170, 14-21.
Sadker (1994)
Signer, B., & Others. (1996). A study of the interaction of ethnicity, math achievement,
socioeconomic status, and gender on math attitudes of high school students.
Reports – Research/Technical. NEED APA HELP
Streitmatter, J. (1997). An exploratory study of risk-taking and attitudes in a girls-only
middle school math class. The Elementary School Journal (98)1, 15-26.
Swain, S.L., & Harvey, D.M. (2002). Single-sex computer classes: an effective alternative.
Tech Trends (46)4, 17-20.
Wood, B.S., & Brown, L.A. (1997). Participation in all-female algebra 1 class: effect on high
school math and science course selection. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science
and Engineering (3)4, 265-277.
Separating Girls and Boys
Appendix
Date: April 13, 2005
17
Separating Girls and Boys
18
To: Montgomery County Schools Superintendent of Education
RE: Auburn University of Montgomery (AUM) Research Study
Dear Sir:
I am a graduate student at AUM seeking permission to perform a three-year study to
determine if there will be significant improvements in female math achievement as a result of
physically separating girls and boys within the same classroom. This study hopes to contribute to
research directed at reducing the gender gap in math achievement in the United States.
This study simply entails separating girls and boys in half of the algebra classes at Lee
High School and Jefferson Davis High School. Girls will sit on one side of the classroom and
boys on the other. The other half of the algebra classes will not be affected. But, we will need
test score data from all algebra students to perform the study. Unit test scores and nine-weeks
exam scores will be used to measure math achievement. Student names will not be used in this
study in any way.
All data supplied by the teachers will be kept confidential. Results of the study will only
be shared between the study team, teachers, principals, and yourself.
Thanks in advance for your time and attention to this request. If you have questions or
wish to discuss, please call me at your convenience at 334-260-9292.
Sincerely,
Stephen L. Diermayer