Gregory’s Pediatric Anesthesia
Chapter 17 - References
1. Steward DJ. Venous cannulation in small infants: a simple method to improve success.
Anesthesiology 199; 90: 930–1.
2. Parellada JA, Guest AL. Fetal circulation and changes occuring at birth. In: Garson A, Bricker
Timothy et al. (eds) The Science and Practice of Pediatric Cardiology. Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins, 1998, pp 349–58.
3. Mitto P, Barankay A, Spath P et al. Central venous catheterization in infants and children with
congenital heart diseases: experiences with 500 consecutive catheter placements. Pediatr Cardiol
1992; 13: 14–19.
4. Raad II, Hohn DC, Gilbreath BJ. Prevention of central venous catheter-related infections by
using maximal sterile barrier precautions during insertion. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994; 15:
231–8.
5. Miller MR, Griswold M, Harris JM 2nd et al. Decreasing PICU catheter-associated bloodstream
infections: NACHRI's quality transformation efforts. Pediatrics 2010; 125: 206–13.
6. Hayashi Y, Uchida O, Takaki O. Internal jugular vein catheterization in infants undergoing
cardiovascular surgery: an analysis of the factors influencing successful catheterization. Anesth
Analg 1992; 74: 688–93.
7. Mallinson C, Bennett J, Hodgson P, Petros AJ. Position of the internal jugular vein in children: a
study of the anatomy using ultrasonography. Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 111–14.
8. Fischer GW, Scherz RG. Neck vein catheters and pericardial tamponade. Pediatrics 1973; 52:
868–71.
9. Sulek CA, Gravenstein N, Blackshear RH, Weiss L. Head rotation during internal jugular vein
cannulation and the risk of carotid artery puncture. Anesth Analg 1996; 82: 125–8.
10. Verghese ST, Nath A, Zenger D et al. The effects of the simulated Valsalva maneuver, liver
compression, and/or Trendelenburg position on the cross-sectional area of the internal jugular vein
in infants and young children. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 250–4.
11. Tan BK, Hong SW, Huang MH, Lee ST. Anatomic basis of safe percutaneous subclavian
venous catheterization. J Trauma 2000; 48: 82–6.
12. Tripathi M, Tripathi M. Subclavian vein cannulation: an approach with definite landmarks. Ann
Thorac Surg 1996; 61: 238–40.
13. Venkataraman ST, Orr RA, Thompson AE. Percutaneous infraclavicular subclavian vein
catheterization in critically ill infants and children. J Pediatr 1988; 113: 480–5.
14. Finck C, Smith S, Jackson R, Wagner C. Percutaneous subclavian central venous
catheterization in children younger than one year of age. Am Surg 2002; 68: 401–4.
15. Andropoulos DB, Stayer SA, Bent ST. A controlled study of transesophageal echocardiography
to guide central venous catheter placement in congenital heart surgery patients. Anesth Analg
1999; 89: 65–70.
16. Jung CW, Bahk JH, Kim MW et al. Head position for facilitating the superior vena caval
placement of catheters during right subclavian approach in children. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 297–
9.
17. Fuenfer MM, Georgeson KE, Cain WS. Etiology and retrieval of retained central venous
catheter fragments within the heart and great vessels of infants and children. J Pediatr Surg 1998;
33: 454–6.
18. Nicolson SC, Sweeney MF, Moore RA, Jobes DR. Comparison of internal and external jugular
cannulation of the central circulation in the pediatric patient. Crit Care Med 1985; 13: 747–9.
19. Taylor EA, Mowbray MJ, McLellan I. Central venous access in children via the external jugular
vein. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 265–6.
20. Stenzel JP, Green TP, Fuhrman BP et al. Percutaneous femoral venous catheterizations: a
prospective study of complications. J Pediatr 1989; 114: 411–15.
21. Venkataraman ST, Thompson AE, Orr RA. Femoral vascular catheterization in critically ill
infants and children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1997; 36: 311–19.
22. Reda Z, Houri S, Davis AL, Baum VC. Effect of airway pressure on inferior vena cava pressure
as a measure of central venous pressure in children. J Pediatr 1995; 126: 961–5.
23. Lloyd TR, Donnerstein RL, Berg RA. Accuracy of central venous pressure measurement from
the abdominal inferior vena cava. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 506–8.
24. Yung M, Butt W. Inferior vena cava pressure as an estimate of central venous pressure. J
Paediatr Child Health 1995; 31: 399–402.
25. Litmanovitch M, Hon H, Luyt DK et al. Comparison of central venous pressure measurements
in the intrathoracic and the intra-abdominal vena cava in critically ill children. Anaesthesia1995; 50:
407–10.
26. Chait HI, Kuhn MA, Baum VC. Inferior vena caval pressure reliably predicts right atrial pressure
in pediatric cardiac surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 219–24.
27. Lovell M, Baines D. Fatal complication from central venous cannulation in a paediatric liver
transplant patient. Paediatr Anaesth 2000; 10: 661–4.
28. Inagawa G, Ka K, Tanaka Y et al. The carina is not a landmark for central venous catheter
placement in neonates. Pediatr Anesth 2007; 17: 968–71.
29. Simon L, Teboul A, Gwinner N et al. Central venous catheter placement in children: evaluation
of electrocardiography using J-wire. Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 501–4.
30. Parigi GB, Verga G. Accurate placement of central venous catheters in pediatric patients using
endocavitary electrocardiography: reassessment of a personal technique. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:
1226–8.
31. Andropoulos DB, Bent ST, Skjonsby B, Stayer SA. The optimal length of insertion of central
venous catheters for pediatric patients. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 883–6.
32. BeVier PA, Rice CE. Initiating a pediatric peripherally inserted central catheter and midline
catheter program. J Intraven Nurs 1994; 17: 201–5.
33. Tseng M, Sadler D, Wong J. Radiologic placement of central venous catheters: rates of
success and immediate complications in 3412 cases. Can Assoc Radiol J 2001; 52: 379–84.
34. Khilnani P, Toce S, Reddy R. Mechanical complications from very small percutaneous central
venous Silastic catheters. Crit Care Med 1990; 18: 1477–8.
35. Bueno TM, Diz AI, Cervera PQ et al. Peripheral insertion of double-lumen central venous
catheter using the Seldinger technique in newborns. J Perinatol 2001; 28:282–6.
36. Foo R, Fujii A, Harris JA et al. Complications in tunneled CVL versus PICC lines in very low
birth weight infants. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 525–30.
37. Tan LH, Hess B, Diaz LK et al. Survey of the use of peripherally inserted central venous
catheters in neonates with critical congenital cardiac disease. Cardiol Young 2007; 17:196–201.
38. Yeldirim V, Ozal E, Cosar A et al. Direct versus guidewire-assisted pediatric radial artery
cannulation technique.J Cardiothor Vasc Anesth 2006; 20:48–50.
39. Glenski JA, Beynen FM, Brady J. A prospective evaluation of femoral artery monitoring in
pediatric patients. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 227–9.
40. Schindler E, Kowald B, Suess H et al. Catheterization of the radial or brachial artery in infants
and children. Pediatr Anesth 2005; 15: 677–82.
41. Lawless S, Orr R. Axillary arterial monitoring of pediatric patients. Pediatrics 1989; 84: 273–5.
42. Greenwald BM, Notterman DA, DeBruin WJ, McCready M. Percutaneous axillary artery
catheterization in critically ill infants and children. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 442–4.
43. Barrington KJ. Umbilical artery catheters in the newborn: effect of position of the catheter tip.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; 2: CD000505.
44. Joshi VV, Draper DA, Bates RD III. Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Occurrence secondary
to thrombosis of abdominal aorta following umbilical arterial catheterization. Arch Pathol 1975; 99:
540–3.
45. Chase MC. Feeding with an umbilical arterial line. Neonatal Netw 1999; 18: 51–2.
46. O'Neill JA Jr, Neblett WW III, Born ML. Management of major thromboembolic complications of
umbilical artery catheters. J Pediatr Surg 1981; 16: 972–8.
47. Butt WW, Whyte H. Blood pressure monitoring in neonates: comparison of umbilical and
peripheral artery catheter measurements. J Pediatr 1984; 105: 630–2.
48. Prian GW. Temporal artery catheterization for arterial access in the high risk newborn. Surgery
1977; 82: 734–7.
49. Bull MJ, Schreiner RL, Garg BP et al. Neurologic complications following temporal artery
catheterization. J Pediatr 1980; 96: 1071–3.
50. Prian GW. Complications and sequelae of temporal artery catheterization in the high-risk
newborn. J Pediatr Surg 1977; 12: 829–35.
51. Brown BR. Intraoperative monitoring of left temporal and right radial arterial pressures during
aortic arch surgery. Anesthesiology 1976; 44: 62–4.
52. Kahler AC, Mirza F. Alternative arterial catheterization site using the ulnar artery in critically ill
pediatric patients. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2002; 3: 370–4.
53. McIntosh BB, Dulchavsky SA. Peripheral vascular cutdown. Crit Care Clin 1992; 8: 807–18.
54. Souza N, Carvalho AC, Carvalho WB et al. Complications of arterial catheterization in children.
Rev Assoc Med Bras 2000; 46: 39–46.
55. Introna RP, Martin DC, Pruett JK et al. Percutaneous pulmonary artery catheterization in
pediatric cardiovascular anesthesia: insertion techniques and use. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 562–6.
56. Rimensberger PC, Beghetti M. Pulmonary artery catheter placement under transoesophageal
echocardiography guidance. Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 167–70.
57. Reich DL, Moskowitz DM, Kaplan JA. Hemodynamic Monitoring. In: Kaplan JA, Reich DL,
Konstadt SN (eds) Cardiac Anesthesia. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1999, pp. 321–58.
58. Vargo TA. Catheterization hemodynamic measurements. In: Garson A, Bricker T et al. (eds)
The Science and Practice of Pediatric Cardiology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1998, pp 961–
93.
59. Bishop MH, Shoemaker WC, Appel PL. Prospective, randomized trial of survivor values of
cardiac index, oxygen delivery, and oxygen consumption as resuscitation endpoints in severe
trauma. J Trauma 1995; 38: 780–7.
60. Velmahos GC, Demetriades D, Shoemaker WC. Endpoints of resuscitation of critically injured
patients: normal or supranormal? A prospective randomized trial. Ann Surg 2000; 232: 409–18.
61. Buheitel G, Scharf J, Hofbeck M, Singer H. Estimation of cardiac index by means of the arterial
and the mixed venous oxygen content and pulmonary oxygen uptake determination in the early
post-operative period following surgery of congenital heart disease. Intens Care Med 1994; 20:
500–3.
62. Rossi AF, Seiden HS, Gross RP, Griepp RB. Oxygen transport in critically ill infants after
congenital heart operations. Ann Thorac Surg 1999; 67: 739–44.
63. Verghese ST, McGill WA, Patel RI et al. Ultrasound-guided internal jugular venous cannulation
in infants: a prospective comparison with the traditional palpation method. Anesthesiology 1999;
91: 71–7.
64. Randolph AG, Cook DJ, Gonzales CA, Pribble CG. Ultrasound guidance for placement of
central venous catheters: a meta-analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 2053–8.
65. Etheridge SP, Berry JM, Krabill KA, Braunlin EA. Echocardiographic-guided internal jugular
venous cannulation in children with heart disease. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149: 77–80.
66. Verghese ST, McGill WA, Patel RI et al. Comparison of three techniques for internal jugular
vein cannulation in infants. Paediatr Anaesth 2000; 10: 505–11.
67. Hosokawa K, Shime N, Kato Y et al. A randomized trial of ultrasound image-based skin surface
marking versus real-time ultrasound-guided internal jugular vein catheterization in infants.
Anesthesiology 2007; 107:720–4.
68. Schwemmer U, Arzet HA, Trautner H et al. Ultrasound-guided arterial cannulation improves
success rate. Eur J Anaesth 2006; 23:476–80.
69. Gallagher JD, Moore RA, McNicholas KW, Jose AB. Comparison of radial and femoral arterial
blood pressures in children after cardiopulmonary bypass. J Clin Monit 1985; 1: 168–71.
70. Gregory GA. Monitoring during surgery. In: Gregory GA (ed) Pediatric Anesthesia. New York:
Churchill Livingstone, 2002, pp 249–65.
71. Mahajan A, Shabanie A, Turner J. Pulse contour analysis of cardiac output monitoring in
congenital heart surgery. Anesthesiology 2002; 97; A488.
72. Francke A, Wachsmuth H. How accurate is invasive blood pressure determination with fluidfilled pressure line systems? Anaesthesiol Reanim 2000; 25: 46–54.
73. Allan MW, Gray WM, Asbury AJ. Measurement of arterial pressure using catheter-transducer
systems. Improvement using the Accudynamic. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 413–18.
74. Linton RA, Jonas MM, Tibby SM et al. Cardiac output measured by lithium dilution and
transpulmonary thermodilution in patients in a paediatric intensive care unit. Intens Care Med
2000; 26: 1507–11.
75. Pauli C, Fakler U, Genz T et al. Cardiac output determination in children; equivalence of the
transpulmonary thermodilution method to the direct Fick principle. Intens Care Med 2002; 28:947–
52.
76. Fakler U, Pauli C, Balling G et al. Cardiac index monitoring by pulse contour analysis and
thermodilution after pediatric cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007; 133:224–8.
77. Liakopoulos OJ, Ho JK, Yezbick A et al. An experimental and clinical evaluation of a novel
central venous catheter with integrated oximetry for pediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery.
Anesth Analg 2007; 105:1598–604.
78. Andropoulos DB, Soifer SJ, Schreiber MD. Plasma epinephrine concentrations after
intraosseous and central venous injection during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the lamb. J
Pediatr 1990; 116: 312–15.
79. Petaja J, Lundstrom U, Sairanen H et al. Central venous thrombosis after cardiac operations in
children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996; 112: 883–9.
80. Nowak-Gottl U, Kotthoff S, Hagemeyer E. Interaction of fibrinolysis and prothrombotic risk
factors in neonates, infants and children with and without thromboembolism and underlying cardiac
disease: a prospective study. Thromb Res 2001; 103: 93–101.
81. Alioglu B, Avci Z, Tokel K et al. Thrombosis in children with cardiac pathology: analysis of
acquired and inherited risk factors. Blood Coag Fibr 2008; 19: 294–304.
82. Cholette JM, Rubenstein JS, Alfieris GM et al. Elevated risk of thrombosis in neonates
undergoing initial palliative cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 84: 1320–5.
83. Borrego R, Lopez-Herce J, Mencia S et al. Severe ischemia of the lower limb and of the
intestine associated with systemic vasoconstrictor therapy and femoral arterial catheterization.
Pediatr Crit Care Med 2006; 7:267–9.
84. Raszka WV Jr, Smith FR, Pratt SR. Superior vena cava syndrome in infants. Clin Pediatr 1989;
28: 195–8.
85. Leaker M, Massicotte MP, Brooker LA, Andrew M. Thrombolytic therapy in pediatric patients: a
comprehensive review of the literature. Thromb Haemost 1996; 76: 132–4.
86. Gupta AA, Leaker M, Andrew M et al. Safety and outcomes of thrombolysis with tissue
plasminogen activator for treatment of intravascular thrombosis in children. J Pediatr 2001; 139:
682–8.
87. Andrew M, Michelson AD, Bovill E et al. Guidelines for antithrombotic therapy in pediatric
patients. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 575–88.
88. Petaja J, Peltola K, Rautiainen P. Disappearance of symptomatic venous thrombosis after
neonatal cardiac operations during antithrombin III substitution. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999;
118: 955–6.
89. Krafte-Jacobs B, Sivit CJ, Mejia R, Pollack MM. Catheter-related thrombosis in critically ill
children: comparison of catheters with and without heparin bonding. J Pediatr 1995; 126: 50–4.
90. Raad II, Luna M, Khalil SA et al. The relationship between the thrombotic and infectious
complications of central venous catheters. JAMA 1994; 271: 1014–16.
91. Pierce CM, Wade A, Mok Q. Heparin-bonded central venous lines reduce thrombotic and
infective complications in critically ill children. Intens Care Med 2000; 26: 967–72.
92. Shah PS, Shah N. Heparin-bonded catheters for prolonging the patency of central venous
catheters in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4: CD005983.
93. Shankar KR, Abernethy LJ, Das KS. Magnetic resonance venography in assessing venous
patency after multiple venous catheters. J Pediatr Surg 2002; 37: 175–9.
94. Flanigan DP, Keifer TJ, Schuler JJ et al. Experience with latrogenic pediatric vascular injuries.
Incidence, etiology, management, and results. Ann Surg 1983; 198: 430–42.
95. Collier PE, Goodman GB. Cardiac tamponade caused by central venous catheter perforation of
the heart: a preventable complication. J Am Coll Surg 1995; 181: 459–63.
96. Fukuda H, Kasuda H, Shimizu R. Right ventricular perforation and cardiac tamponade caused
by a central venous catheter. Masui 1993; 42: 280–3.
97. Van Engelenburg KC, Festen C. Cardiac tamponade: a rare but life-threatening complication of
central venous catheters in children. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33: 1822–4.
98. Cherng YG, Cheng YJ, Chen TG et al. Cardiac tamponade in an infant. A rare complication of
central venous catheterisation. Anaesthesia 1994; 49: 1052–4.
99. Lonnqvist PA, Olsson GL. Persistent left superior vena cava – an unusual location of central
venous catheters in children. Intens Care Med 1991; 17: 497–500.
100. Gravenstein N, Blackshear RH. In vitro evaluation of relative perforating potential of central
venous catheters: comparison of materials, selected models, number of lumens, and angles of
incidence to simulated membrane. J Clin Monit 1991; 7: 1–6.
101. Suarez-Penaranda JM, Rico-Boquete R, Munoz JI et al. Unexpected sudden death from
coronary sinus thrombosis. An unusual complication of central venous catheterization. J Forensic
Sci 2000; 45: 920–2.
102. Hayashi Y, Maruyama K, Takaki O et al. Optimal placement of CVP catheter in paediatric
cardiac patients. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42: 479–82.
103. Bolton DT. Extravasation associated with a multilumen central catheter. Anaesthesia 1997;
52: 1119.
104. Wang CC, Chen YW, Wu ET et al. Identification and management of cardiac perforation by a
double lumen catheter in an infant. Pediatr Anesth 2007; 17: 500–1.
105. Sigda M, Speights C, Thigpen J. Pericardial tamponade due to umbilical venous
catheterization. Neonatal Netw 1992; 11: 7–9.
106. Raval NC, Gonzalez E, Bhat AM et al. Umbilical venous catheters: evaluation of radiographs
to determine position and associated complications of malpositioned umbilical venous catheters.
Am J Perinatol 1995; 12: 201–4.
107. Morag I, Epelman M, Daneman A et al. Portal vein thrombosis in the neonate: risk factors,
course, and outcome. J Pediatr 2006; 148: 735–9.
108. Lavandosky G, Gomez R, Montes J. Potentially lethal misplacement of femoral central
venous catheters. Crit Care Med 1996; 24: 893–6.
109. Zenker M, Rupprecht T, Hofbeck M et al. Paravertebral and intraspinal malposition of
transfemoral central venous catheters in newborns. J Pediatr 2000; 136: 837–40.
110. Bodhey NK, Gupta AK, Sreedhar R et al. Retroperitoneal hematoma: an unusual complication
after femoral vein cannulation. J Cardiothor Vasc Anesth 2006; 20: 859–61.
111. Maruyama K, Hayashi Y, Ohnishi Y, Kuro M. How deep may we insert the cannulation needle
for catheterization of the internal jugular vein in pediatric patients undergoing cardiovascular
surgery? Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 883–4.
112. Furfaro S, Gauthier M, Lacroix J et al. Arterial catheter-related infections in children. A 1-year
cohort analysis. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145: 1037–43.
113. O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular
catheter–related infections. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, Center
for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Pediatrics 2002; 110: e51.
114. Raad I, Darouiche R, Dupuis J. Central venous catheters coated with minocycline and
rifampin for the prevention of catheter-related colonization and bloodstream infections: a
randomized, double-blind trial. The Texas Medical Center Catheter Study Group. Ann Intern Med
1997; 127: 267–74.
115. Chelliah A, Heydon KH, Zaoutis TE et al. Observational trial of antibiotic-coated central
venous catheters in critically ill pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007; 26:816–20.
116. Damen J, van der Tweel I. Positive tip cultures and related risk factors associated with
intravascular catheterization in pediatric cardiac patients. Crit Care Med 1988; 16: 221–8.
117. Costello JM, Morrow DF, Graham DA et al. Systematic intervention to reduce central line
associated bloodstream infection rates in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. Pediatrics 2008;
121: 915–23.
118. Lin MH, Young ML, Wang NK, Shen CT. Central venous catheter-induced atrial ectopic
tachycardia with reverse alternating Wenckebach periods. J Formos Med Assoc 2001; 100: 50–2.
119. Conwell JA, Cocalis MW, Erickson LC. EAT to the beat: "ectopic" atrial tachycardia caused by
catheter whip. Lancet 1993; 342: 740.
120. Baines D. Persistent atrial fibrillation following central venous cannulation. Paediatr Anaesth
2000; 10: 454–5.
121. Lee TY, Sung CS, Chu YC et al. Incidence and risk factors of guidewire0induced arrhythmia
during internal jugular venous catheterization: comparison of marked and plain J-wires. J Clin
Anesth 1996; 8: 348–51.
122. Cephus CE, Mott AR, Kertesz NJ et al. Transient complete atrioventricular block after
placement of a central venous catheter in a neonate. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2007; 8: 64–6.
123. Morello FP, Donaldson JS, Saker MC, Norman JT. Air embolism during tunneled central
catheter placement performed without general anesthesia in children: a potentially serious
complication. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1999; 10: 781–4.
124. Kurekci E, Kaye R, Koehler M. Chylothorax and chylopericardium: a complication of a central
venous catheter. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 1064–6.
125. Miyamoto Y, Kinouchi K, Hiramatsu K, Kitamura S. Cervical dural puncture in a neonate: a
rare complication of internal jugular venipuncture. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 1239–42.
126. Williams JH, Hunter JE, Kanto WP Jr, Bhatia J. Hemidiaphragmatic paralysis as a
complication of central venous catheterization in a neonate. J Perinatol 1995; 15: 386–8.
127. Van Tets WF, van Dullemen HM, Tjan GT, van Berge HD. Vertebral arteriovenous fistula
caused by puncture of the internal jugular vein. Eur J Surg 1992; 158: 627–8.
128. Zeligowsky A, Szold A, Seror D et al. Horner syndrome: a rare complication of internal jugular
vein cannulation. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1991; 15: 199.
129. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Standards for Basic Anesthetic Monitoring 2005.
www.asahq.org.
130. Jimenez N, Posner KL, Cheney FW et al. An update on pediatric anesthesia liability: a closed
claims analysis. Anesth Analg 2007; 104: 147–53.
131. Watson A, Visram A. Survey of the use of oesophageal and precordial stethoscopes in
current paediatric anaesthetic practice. Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11: 437–42.
132. Severinghaus JW, Kelleher JF. Recent developments in pulse oximetry. Anesthesiology
1992; 86: 1018–38.
133. Pedersen T, Møller AM, Hovhannisyan K. Pulse oximetry for perioperative monitoring.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 4: CD002013.
134. Cote CJ, Goldstein EA, Cote MA et al. A single blind study of pulse oximetry in children.
Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 184–8.
135. Cote CJ, Rolf N, Liu LM et al. A single blind study of combined pulse oximetry and
capnography in children. Anesthesiology 1991; 74: 980–87.
136. Schmitt HJ, Schuetz WH, Proeschel PA et al. Accuracy of pulse oximetry in children with
cyanotic congenital heart disease. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1993; 7: 61–5.
137. Torres A Jr, Skender KM, Wohrley JD et al. Pulse oximetry in children with congenital heart
disease: effects of cardiopulmonary bypass and cyanosis. J Intens Care Med 2004; 19: 229–34.
138. Villanueva R, Bell C, Kain ZN et al. Effect of peripheral perfusion on accuracy of pulse
oximetry in children. J Clin Anesth 1999; 11: 317–22.
139. Scheller MS, Unger RJ, Kelner MJ. Effects of intravenously administered dyes on pulse
oximetry readings. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: 550–2.
140. Veyckemans F, Baele P, Guillaume JE et al. Hyperbilirubinemia does not interfere with
hemoglobin saturation measured by pulse oximetery. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 118–22.
141. Praud JP, Carofilis A, Bridey F et al. Accuracy of two wavelength pulse oximetry in neonates
and infants. Pediatr Pulmonol 1989; 6: 180–2.
142. Robertson RE, Kaplan RF. Another site for the pulse oximeter probe. Anesthesiology 1991;
74: 198.
143. Coté CJ, Daniels AL, Connolly M et al. Tongue oximetry in children with extensive thermal
injury: comparison with peripheral oximetry. Can J Anaesth 1992; 39: 454–7.
144. Gunter JB. A buccal sensor for measuring arterial oxygen saturation. Anesth Analg 1989;
69:417–18.
145. Reynolds LM, Nicolson SC, Steven JM et al. Influence of sensor site location on pulse
oximetry kinetics in children. Anesth Analg 1993; 76:751–4.
146. Malviya S, Reynolds PI, Voepel-Lewis T et al. False alarms and sensitivity of conventional
pulse oximetery versus the Masimo SET technology in the pediatric postanesthetic care unit.
Anesth Analg 2000; 90: 1336–40.
147. Barker SJ, Badal JJ. The measurement of dyshemoglobins and total hemoglobin by pulse
oximetery. Curr Opin Anaesth 2008; 21: 805–10.
148. Robertson FA, Hoffman GM. Clinical evaluation of the effects of signal integrity and saturation
on data availability and accuracy of Masimo SET and Nellcor N-395 oximeters in children. Anesth
Analg 2004; 98: 617–22.
149. Desebbe O, Cannesson M. Using ventilation-induced plethysmographic variations to optimize
patient fluid status. Curr Opin Anaesth 2008; 21: 772–8.
150. Colman M, Krauss B. Microstream capnography technology: a new approach to an old
problem. J Clin Monit 1999; 15: 403–9.
151. Greer KJ, Bowen WA, Krauss AN. End-tidal CO2 as a function of tidal volume in mechanically
ventilated infants. Am J Perinatol 2003; 20: 447–51.
152. Hardman JG, Mahajan RP, Curran J. The influence of breathing system filters on paediatric
capnography. Pediatr Anesth 1999; 9: 35–8.
153. Kugelman A, Zeiger-Aginsky D, Bader D et al. A novel method of distal end-tidal CO2
capnography in intubated infants: comparison with arterial CO2 and with proximal mainstream endtidal CO2. Pediatrics 2008; 122: e1219–24.
154. Lopez E, Grabar S, Barbier A et al. Detection of carbon dioxide thresholds using low-flow
sidestream capnography in ventilated preterm infants. Intens Care Med 2009; 35: 1942–9.
155. Choudhury M, Kiran U, Choudhary SK et al. Arterial-to-end-tidal carbon dioxide tension
difference in children with congenital heart disease. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2006; 20: 196–
201.
156. Mason KP, Burrows PE, Dorsey MM et al. Accuracy of capnography with a 30 foot nasal
cannula for monitoring respiratory rate and end tidal CO2 in children. J Clin Monit 2000; 16: 259–
62.
157. Hendrickx JF, Lemmens HJ, Carette R et al. Can modern infrared analyzers replace gas
chromatography to measure anesthetic vapor concentrations? BMC Anesthesiol 2008; 8; 2.
158. Berggren M, Hosseini N, Nilsson K et al. Improved response time with a new miniaturized
mainstream multigas monitor. J Clin Monit Comput 2009; 23: 355–61.
159. Badgwell JM, Swan J, Foster AC. Volume controlled ventilation is made possible in infants by
using compliant breathing circuits with large compression volume. Anesth Analg 1996; 82: 719–23.
160. Stayer S, Olutoye O. Anesthesia ventilators: better options for children. Anesthesiol Clin North
Am 2005; 23: 677–91.
161. Bissonnette B, Holtby HM, Davis AJ et al. Cerebral hyperthermia in children after
cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 611–18.
162. Fuchs-Buder T, Schreiber JU, Meistelman C. Monitoring neuromuscular block: an update.
Anaesthesia 2009; 64 Suppl 1: 82–9.
163. Jobsis FF. Noninvasive, infrared monitoring of cerebral and myocardial oxygen sufficiency
and circulatory parameters. Science 1977; 198: 1264–7.
164. Kurth CD, Steven JM, Nicolson SC et al. Kinetics of cerebral deoxygenation during deep
hypothermic circulatory arrest in neonates. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 656–61.
165.Yoshitani K, Kawaguchi M, Tatsumi K et al. A comparison of the INVOS 4100 and the NIRO
300 near infrared spectrophotometers. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 586–70.
166. Kurth CD, Steven JL, Montenegro LM. Cerebral oxygen saturation before congenital heart
surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2001; 72: 187–92.
167. Watzman HM, Kurth CD, Montenegro LM et al. Arterial and venous contributions to nearinfrared cerebral oximetry. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 947–53.
168. Dullenkopf A, Frey B, Baenziger O et al. Measurement of cerebral oxygenation state in
anaesthetized children using the INVOS 5100 cerebral oximeter. Pediatr Anesth 2003; 13: 384–91.
169. Rais-Bahrami K, Rivera O, Short BL. Validation of a noninvasive neonatal optical cerebral
oximeter in veno-venous ECMO patients with a cephalad catheter. J Perinatol 2006; 26: 628–35.
170. Daubeney PE, Pilkington SN, Janke E et al. Cerebral oxygenation measured by near-infrared
spectroscopy: comparison with jugular bulb oximetry. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 61: 930–4.
171. Abdul-Khaliq H, Troitzsch D, Berger F, Lange PE. Regional transcranial oximetry with near
infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in comparison with measuring oxygen saturation in the jugular bulb
in infants and children for monitoring cerebral oxygenation. Biomed Tech (Berl) 2000; 45: 328–32.
172. Cohn SM. Near infrared spectroscopy: potential clinical benefits in surgery. J Am Coll Surg
2007; 205: 322–32.
173. Hoffman GM, Stuth EA, Jacquiss RD et al. Changes in cerebral and somatic oxygenation
during stage I palliation of hypoplastic left heart syndrome using continuous regional cerebral
perfusion. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004; 127: 223–33.
174. Meier SD, Eble BK, Stapleton GE et al. Mesenteric oxyhemoglobin saturation improves with
patent ductus arteriosus ligation. J Perinatol 2006; 26: 562–4.
175. Ramamoorthy C, Tabbutt S, Kurth CD. Effects of inspired hypoxic and hypercapnic gas
mixtures on cerebral oxygen saturation in neonates with univentricular heart defects.
Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 283–8.
176. Kurth CD, Levy WJ, McCann J. Near-infrared spectroscopy cerebral oxygen saturation
thresholds for hypoxia-ischemia in piglets. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2002; 22: 335–41.
177. Hou X, Ding H, Teng Y et al. Research on the relationship between brain anoxia at different
regional oxygen saturations and brain damage using near-infrared spectroscopy. Physiol Meas
2007; 28: 1251–65.
178. Kurth CD, McCann JC, Wu J et al. Cerebral oxygen saturation – time threshold for hypoxicoschemic injury in piglets. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 1268–77.
179. Dent CL, Spaeth JP, Jones BV et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities after
the Norwood procedure using regional cerebral perfusion. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2006; 131:
190–7.
180. Austin EH III, Edmonds HL Jr, Auden SM. Benefit of neurophysiologic monitoring for pediatric
cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114: 707–15, 717.
181. Kurth CD, Steven JM, Nicolson SC. Cerebral oxygenation during pediatric cardiac surgery
using deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. Anesthesiology 1995; 82: 74–82.
182. Greeley WJ, Kern FH, Ungerleider RM. The effect of hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass
and total circulatory arrest on cerebral metabolism in neonates, infants, and children. J Thorac
Cardiovasc Surg 1991; 101: 783–94.
183. Wypij D, Newburger JW, Rappaport LA et al. The effect of duration of deep hypothermic
circulatory arrest in infant heart surgery on late neurodevelopment: the Boston Circulatory Arrest
Trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 126: 1397–403.
184. Daubeney PE, Smith DC, Pilkington SN. Cerebral oxygenation during paediatric cardiac
surgery: identification of vulnerable periods using near infrared spectroscopy. Eur J Cardiothorac
Surg 1998; 13: 370–7.
185. Andropoulos DB, Diaz LK, Stayer SA et al. Is bilateral monitoring of cerebral oxygen
saturation necessary during neonatal aortic arch reconstruction? Anesth Analg 2004; 98: 1267–72.
186. Kussman BD, Wypij D, DiNardo JA et al. An evaluation of bilateral monitoring of cerebral
oxygen saturation during pediatric cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2005; 101: 1294–300.
187. Giacomuzzi C, Heller E, Mejak B et al. Assessing the brain using near infrared spectroscopy
during postoperative ventricular circulatory support. Cardiol Young 2005; 15: 154–8.
188. Tortoriello TA, Stayer SA, Mott AR et al. A non-invasive estimation of mixed venous oxygen
saturation using near infrared spectroscopy by cerebral oximetry in pediatric cardiac surgery
patients. Pediatr Anesth 2005; 15: 495–503.
189. Bhutta AT, Ford JW, Parker JG et al. Non invasive cerebral oximeter as a surrogate for mixed
venous saturation in children. Pediatr Cardiol 2007; 28: 34–41.
190. Hoffman GM, Ghanayem NS, Mussatto KM et al. Postoperative two-site NIRS predicts
complications and mortality after stage 1 palliation of hypoplastic left heart syndrome.
Anesthesiology 2007; 107: A234.
191. Kaufman J, Almodovar MC, Zuk J, Freisen RH. Correlation of abdominal site near infrared
spectroscopy with gastric tonometry in infants following surgery for congenital heart disease.
Pediatr Crit Care Med 2008; 9: 62–8.
192. McQuillen PS, Barkovich AJ, Hamrick SE et al. Temporal and anatomic risk profile of brain
injury with neonatal repair of congenital heart defects. Stroke 2007; 38(part 2): 736–41.
193. Hoffman GM, Mussatto KM, Brosig CL et al. Cerebral oxygenation and neurodevelopmental
outcome in hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Anesthesiology 2008; 109:A7 (abstract).
194. Toet MC, Flinterman A, van de Laar I et al. Cerebral oxygen saturation and electrical brain
activity before, during, and up to 36 hours after arterial switch procedure in neonates without preexisting brain damage: its relationship to neurodevelopmental outcome. Exp Brain Res 2005; 165:
343–50.
195. Kussman BD, Wypij D, DiNardo JA et al. Cerebral oximetry during infant cardiac surgery:
evaluation and relationship to early postoperative outcome. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 1122–31.
196. Andropoulos DB, East DL, Stapleton GE et al. Postoperative cerebral oxyhemoglobin
saturation in neonates undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology
2005; 103: A1340.
197. Gottlieb EA, Fraser CD, Andropoulos DB, Diaz LK. Bilateral monitoring of cerebral oxygen
saturation results in recognition of aortic cannula malposition during pediatric congenital heart
surgery. Pediatr Anesth 2006; 16: 787–9.
198. Ing RJ, Lawson DS, Jaggers J et al. Detection of unintended partial superior vena cava
occlusion during a bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004;
18: 472–4.
199. Redlin M, Koster A, Huenbler M et al. Regional differences in tissue oxygenation during
cardiopulmonary bypass for correction of congenital heart disease in neonates and small infants:
relevance of near infrared spectroscopy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008; 136: 962–7.
200. Hirsch JC, Charpie JR, Ohye RG, Gurney JG. Near infrared spectroscopy: what we know and
what we need to know – a systematic review of the congenital heart disease literature. J Thorac
Cardiovasc Surg 2009; 137: 154–9.
201. Fischer AQ, Truemper EJ. Applications in the neonate and child. In: Bibikian VL, Wechlser LR
(eds) Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography, 2nd edn. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993, pp
355–75.
202. Truemper EJ, Fischer AQ. Cerebrovascular developmental anatomy and physiology in the
infant and child. In In: Bibikian VL, Wechlser LR (eds) Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography, 2nd
edn. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993, pp 281–320.
203. Hillier SC, Burrows FA, Bissonnette B, Taylor RH. Cerebral hemodynamics in neonates and
infants undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass and profound hypothermic circulatory arrest:
assessment by transcranial Doppler sonography. Anesth Analg 1991; 72: 723–8.
204. Huber P, Handa J. Effect of contrast material, hypercapnia, hyperventilation, hypertonic
glucose and papaverine on the diameter of the cerebral arteries: angiographic determination in
man. Invest Radiol 1967; 2: 17–32.
205. Greeley WJ, Ungerleider RM, Kern FH et al. Effects of cardiopulmonary bypass on cerebral
blood flow in neonates, infants, and children. Circulation 1989; 80: I209–I215.
206. Zimmerman AA, Burrows FA, Jonas RA, Hickey PR. The limits of detectable cerebral
perfusion by transcranial Doppler sonography in neonates undergoing deep hypothermic low-flow
cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114: 594–600.
207. Andropoulos DB, Stayer SA, McKenzie ED, Fraser CD Jr. Novel cerebral physiologic
monitoring to guide low-flow cerebral perfusion during neonatal aortic arch reconstruction. J
Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 491–9.
208. O'Brien JJ, Butterworth J, Hammon JW et al. Cerebral emboli during cardiac surgery in
children. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: 1063–9.
209. Rodriguez RA, Cornel G, Splinter WM et al. Cerebrovascular effects of aortovenous
cannulations for pediatric cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 2000; 69:1229–35.
210. Akiyama T, Kobayashi K, Nakahori T. Electroencephalographic changes and their regional
differences during pediatric cardiovascular surgery with hypothermia. Brain Dev 2001; 23: 115–21.
211. Bowdle TA. Depth of anesthesia monitoring. Anesthesiol Clin 2006; 24:793–822.
212. Davidson AJ. Measuring anesthesia in children using the EEG. Pediatr Anesth 2006; 16:
374–87.
213. Sigl JC, Chamoun NG. An introduction to bispectral analysis for the electroencephalogram. J
Clin Monit 1994; 10: 392–404.
214. Denman WT, Swanson EL, Rosow D et al. Pediatric evaluation of the bispectral index (BIS)
monitor and correlation of BIS with end-tidal sevoflurane concentration in infants and children.
Anesth Analg 2000; 90: 872–7.
215. Ibrahim AE, Taraday JK, Kharasch ED. Bispectral index monitoring during sedation with
sevoflurane, midazolam, and propofol. Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 1151–9.
216. Phillips AA, McLean RF, Devitt JH, Harrington EM. Recall of intraoperative events after
general anaesthesia and cardiopulmonary bypass. Can J Anaesth 1993; 40: 922–6.
217. Goldmann L, Shah MV, Hebden MW. Memory of cardiac anaesthesia. Psychological
sequelae in cardiac patients of intraoperative suggestion and operating room conversation.
Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 596–603.
218. Dowd NP, Cheng DC, Karski JM et al. Intraoperative awareness in fast-track cardiac
anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 1068–73.
219. Davidson AJ, Huang GH, Czarnecki C et al. Awareness during anesthesia in children: a
prospective cohort study. Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 653–61.
220. Laussen PC, Murphy JA, Zurakowski D et al. Bispectral index monitoring in children
undergoing mild hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass. Pediatr Anesth 2001; 11: 567–73.
221. Kussman BD, Gruber EM, Zurakowski D et al. Bispectral index monitoring during infant
cardiac surgery: relationship of BIS to the stress response and plasma fentanyl levels. Pediatr
Anesth 2001; 11: 663–9.
222. Davidson AJ. Monitoring the anaesthetic depth in children – an update. Curr Opin
Anaesthesiol 2007; 20(3): 236–43.
223. Davidson AJ, Kwok T. Performance of BIS in children using the paediatric BIS Quattro
sensor. Anaesth Intens Care 2008; 36: 807–13.
224. Whyte SD, Ansermino JM. Anesthetic considerations in the management of Wilms tumor.
Pediatr Anesth 2006; 16: 504–13.