Introduction_to_Infection_and_Immunity_part_two

advertisement

The Lymphatic System

Lymph: fluid in the tissue spaces that carries protein molecules and other substances back to the blood

Lymphatic vessels permit only one-way movement of lymph

Lymphatic capillaries are tiny, blind-ended tubes distributed in tissue spaces. They are:

Microscopic in size

One cell thick

“Leaky”: They have a poor “fit” between adjacent cells, which results in higher wall porosity than is found in capillaries

Lymphedema

Swelling (edema) of tissues caused by blockage of lymph vessels

Lymphangitis—inflammation of lymph vessels, may progress to septicemia (blood infection)

Elephantiasis—severe lymphedema of limbs resulting from parasite infestation of lymph vessels

(filariasis)

Lymph Nodes

Functions include defense and white blood cell formation

Filter lymph of bacteria, cancer cells, and damaged tissue cells; prevents them from entering blood circulation; helps to localize infection

Located in clusters along the pathway of lymphatic vessels

The Thymus

Lymphoid tissue organ located in the mediastinum

Plays a vital and central role in immunity

Produces T-lymphocytes or T Cells (Helper T Cells and Cytotoxic (killer) T Cells)

The Tonsils

Composed of three masses of lymphoid tissue around the openings of the mouth and throat

Palatine tonsils (“the tonsils”)

Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)

Lingual tonsils

Provide protection against bacterial infection through the nasal-oral cavities

Subject to chronic infection and enlargement

The Spleen

Largest lymphoid organ in the body

Functions include phagocytosis of bacteria, foreign substances, and old RBCs; recovers iron; acts as a blood reservoir (contains up to 500ml of blood)

The Immune System

Protects the body from pathogenic bacteria, foreign tissue cells, and cancerous cells

Made up of organs, specialized cells and molecules

Provides immunity (resistance) to the “enemies” of the body

The immune systems comes into play when our external defenses fail to prevent infection

The Skin

In addition to its qualities as a strong, flexible, and waterproof “shield,” the skin also acts as a chemical barrier to infection

Glands secrete antimicrobial substances that can be produced in greater quantities as needed

These broad spectrum antimicrobials are aimed primarily at bacteria and fungi, but some have antiviral properties as well

A breach of the skin leads to an inflammatory response intended to increase the attention of the immune system at the source of entry

This strategy serves to localize infection, if possible

The Respiratory Tract

Given that a wide variety of microbes are airborne, it is not surprising that the respiratory tract is an important point of entry for pathogens

Mucous in the nose and pharynx can trap larger particles that can be expelled by coughing or sneezing

In the lower bronchial tree, the muco-ciliary elevator moves mucous toward the pharynx, where it is expelled through coughing or spitting, or is swallowed

Substances in the alveolar spaces cause aggregation of microbes, facilitating their destruction

Antimicrobials, some like those found in the skin, are found in the respiratory tract

Together, these defences yield sterile alveoli under normal circumstances

The Mouth & Intestines

Food and water contamination are significant sources of infection

Untreated water and poor food-handling or cooking practices are responsible for a wide range of illnesses

Saliva contains lysozyme, an enzyme that can damage the cell walls of some bacteria and fungi

The high acidity of gastric juices are a first line of defence against infection through the oral consumption of pathogens

The lining of the stomach protects it; the lack of such a lining in the oesophagus makes the vomiting reflex -- which can also serve to clear pathogens -- both hazardous and uncomfortable

At least one bacterium, H. Pylori, has adapted to the acidic environment of the stomach, and is blamed for up to 80% of all ulcers of the stomach and duodenum

Bile salts may also be antibacterial, and antimicrobial substances are also found in the gut

The gut is home to specialized antibodies, and friendly flora abound; this may serve to keep pathogenic bacteria in check

The fecal-oral route is an important pathway of infection for a number of pathogens

The Urogenital Tract

The urinary tract is flushed of bacteria through voiding

This can be impaired in the case of prostatic hypertrophy

In females, the urethra is relatively short, and therefore more vulnerable to ascending infection

The kidneys produce an antibacterial peptide that can aid in controlling the extent of bacterial infection

Similar antibacterial substances are produced in the vagina, cervix, and uterus

These appear to be regulated by hormones

The vagina is mildly acidic, which would also lend some protection from infection

The Eyes

Tears serve to flush particles – including microbes – from the eyes

Tears contain the antibacterial and antifungal enzyme lysozyme

Phagocytes

These cells of non-specific immunity ingest and destroy foreign cells or other harmful substances via phagocytosis

Specific Immunity

Specific immunity provides protection against specific bacteria, viruses or toxins

Involves the ability of the body to recognize, respond to, and remember harmful substances or bacteria

On first infection, disease symptoms may occur; upon subsequent infection, the disease agent is rapidly destroyed, and no serious symptoms can be expected

Inherited or inborn immunity: immunity to certain diseases from birth

Acquired immunity

Natural immunity—exposure to causative agent is not deliberate

Active—active disease produces immunity

Passive—immunity passes from mother to fetus through placenta or from mother to child through mother’s milk

Artificial immunity—exposure to causative agent is deliberate

Active—vaccination results in immunity

Passive—protective material developed in another individual’s immune system and given to previously non-immune individual

Immune System Molecules

Antibodies

Protein compounds with specific combining sites

Combining sites attach antibodies to specific antigens (foreign proteins), forming an antigenantibody complex

Antigen-antibody complexes may:

Neutralize toxins

Agglutinate (clump) foreign cells

Promote phagocytosis

Initiate the complement cascade (which increases rates of phagocytosis or causes cell lysis through osmosis)

Lymphocytes

Most numerous of immune system cells

They are responsible for antibody production

They “wander” in the tissues and fluids of the body, “seeking out enemy cells”

They are most dense in lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissues

Two major types: B Cells and T Cells

Immature B Cells are formed from stem cells, in the liver and bone marrow before birth, and in the bone marrow exclusively after birth; they “mature” when they come into contact with a specific antigen

Activated B cells develop into plasma cells; plasma cells secrete antibodies into the blood; circulating antibodies provide immunity

T Cells are formed from stem cells originating in bone marrow that undergo maturation in the thymus

T Cells become “sensitized” when they encounter a specific antigen

T Cells kill invading cells by releasing a substance that poisons cells and also by releasing chemicals that attract and activate macrophages to kill cells by phagocytosis

Clonal Selection

When lymphocytes encounter ‘their’ antigen, they proliferate through cell division

This clonal selection allows for individuals to develop immune systems that are adapted to their environment as well as their own immunological history

Once an infection is eliminated, lymphocytes die off, but we retain “memory cells” that reflect our prior experience of infection, and allow us to mount a more rapid and vigorous response to pathogens if we encounter them in the future

Lymphocyte Memory

B Cells appear to maintain memory for many decades after exposure, even in the absence of the antigen

Proliferation yields more of them that are antigen-specific

They become plasma cells more quickly

They make more powerful antibody more rapidly

They produce antibody with a higher affinity

T Cells appear to maintain memory for many years, but it is not understood if this memory persists in the absence of the antigen

Memory T Cells proliferate more rapidly than naïve T Cells

Longer-term memory is derived from live rather than dead vaccines

Oral vaccines are more effective for pathogens of the gut

Download