Lecture C1. Exposure of intraabdominal organs, technical aspects of laparotomy 1.
Lecture C2. Incisions, exposure of intraabdominal organs 2. Appendectomy
What is a „Modul”?
A curricular structure to...
- update new scientific and medical findings relevant to medical practice
- enhance clinical reasoning and decision making
- provide individual feedback and career advising
Typical careers
Surgery and surgical specialties, i. e. general, head and neck, plastics, thoracic, vascular,
neurosurgery
Gynecology
Oncology
Ophthalmology
Orthopedics
Urology
Anesthesiology, emergency medicine, critical care
Cardiology
Goals
- to foster skills-based decision making
- to broaden the correlation of physiology, anatomy and pharmacology to acute clinical care
Emphasis
- procedures
- critical thinking and assessment skills
- to develop the knowledge and skills to support a career choice in those specialties in which
expertise in anatomy/surgery is critical
Format and topics
Surgical principles taught on animals, including basic techniques and advanced interventions
such as surgical operations, e.g. laparotomy, appendectomy and intestinal resection, bowel
anastomosis and thoracotomy.
General structure of lectures
1. History, background
2. Asepsis and antisepsis, complications
3. Anaesthesia
4. Anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of the abdominal wall
5. Wound healing
6. Diagnostic and surgical interventions for a patient undergoing laparotomy
7. Intraoperative course for a patient undergoing acute and planned laparotomy,
intraoperative problems
8. Appropriate patient position
9. Incisions used for the procedure
10. Procedural steps
11. Supplies, equipment, and instrumentation needed for the procedure
12. Postoperative care
Terms and definitions
Laparo-, lapar- (Greek:): the soft part of the body between the ribs
and the hip; denotes the flank or loins and the abdominal wall. Sometimes this element is used
loosely (even incorrectly) in reference to the abdomen in general.
In surgery
Cutting through the abdominal walls into the cavity of the abdomen; incision into the loin.
Surgical incision through the flank; less correctly, but more generally, abdominal section at
any point to gain access to the peritoneal cavity
Laparotomy- investigation of abdominal pain
• Emergency admissions: 50% of general surgical work load
• Abdominal pain: 50% of emergency admissions
• 70% of diagnoses can be made based on history alone.
• 90% of diagnoses can be made based on history + physical exam.
• Expensive tests: often confirm what is found during the history and physical
examinations
Conditions presenting with acute abdominal pain
Condition
%
Non-specific abdominal pain
35
Acute appendicitis
17
Intestinal obstruction
15
Urological causes
6
Gallstone disease
5
Colonic diverticular disease
4
Abdominal trauma
3
Abdominal malignancy
3
Perforated peptic ulcer
3
Pancreatitis
2
Ruptured AAA
<1
Inflammatory bowel disease
<1
Gastroenteritis
<1
Mesenteric ischaemia
<1
Causes of Non-Specific Abdominal Pain
 Viral infections
 Bacterial gastroenteritis
 Worm infestations
 Irritable bowel syndrome
 Gynaecological causes
 Psychosomatic pain
 Abdominal wall pain
 Iatrogenic peripheral nerve injuries
 Hernia
 Myofascial pain syndrome
 Rib tip syndrome
 Nerve root pain
 Rectus sheath haematoma
History of abdominal surgery
1809 (Christmas morning): Dr. Ephraim McDowell removed an ovarian tumor from Mrs.
Crawford without anesthetic or antisepsis:
"Having never seen so large a substance extracted, nor heard of an attempt, or success
attending any operation such as this required, I gave to the unhappy woman…information of
her dangerous situation…. The tumor…appeared full in view, but was so large we could not
take it away entire…. We took out fifteen pounds of a dirty, gelatinous looking substance.
After which we cut through the fallopian tube, and extracted the sac, which weighed seven
pounds and one half…. In five days I visited her, and much to my astonishment found her
making up her bed.„ McDowell E. Three cases of extirpation of diseased ovaria. Eclectic
Repertory Anal Rev. 1817; 7:242-4.
The risk of fatal infection was very high – the operation was bitterly criticized.
1879: Jules Émile Péan (1830-1898) opened the abdomen of a patient with cancer of the
pylorus. The diseased section was cut out, the remainder was sewed to the duodenum. The
patient died 5 days later.
1880: Ludwig Rydyger: same procedure but it had been planned in advance; the patient died
within 12 hrs of "exhaustion."
1881: Christian Albert Theodor Billroth (1829-1894): successful operation (the patient died 4
months later due to the propagation of the tumor). Two other, deadly operations: Billroth was
stoned on the streets of Vienna.
1885: Billroth II (pylorus cc): successful operations
Technical background of abdominal incisions. Incisions – basic principles
 Abdominal incisions are based on anatomical principles
 They must allow adequate assess to the abdomen
 They should be capable of being extended if required
 Ideally muscle fibres should be split rather than cut
 Nerves should not be divided
 The rectus muscle has a segmental nerve supply. It can be cut transversally without
weakening a denervated segment
 Above the umbilicus tendineus intersections prevent retraction of the muscle
Site, type, etc. of laparotomy is depending on:
 The disease process,
 Body habitus,
 Operative exposure,
 Simplicity,
 Previous scars,
 Cosmetic factors,
 The need for quick entry into the abdominal cavity
Recap: relevant anatomy of the abdominal wall
Layers to be cut:
 Skin
 Superficial fascia (Camper’s),
 Deep fascia (Scarpa’s)
 Anterior rectus sheath,
 Rectus abdominis muscle
 Posterior rectus sheath down to arcuate line
 Transversal fascia
 Extraperitoneal connective tissue
 Peritoneum
Recap: vessels of the anterior abdominal wall
 The superficial vasculature originates from branches of the femoral artery and includes
the superficial epigastric, the superficial circumflex, and the superficial external
pudendal arteries. These vessels course through the tissues anterior to the rectus sheath.
 The deep vasculature = from the external iliac and the internal thoracic artery. Inferior
epigastric a. originates from the external iliac and courses posterior to the lateral 1/3 of
the rectus m. Deep circumflex a., branch of the external iliac, courses cephalad lateral
to the inferior epigastric artery. The superior epigastric a. (branch of the internal
thoracic a.) forms anastomosis with the inferior epigastric. The internal thoracic artery
is the source of the musculophrenic artery - anastomosis with deep circumflex.
Recap: important things about nerves
• Lateral to the midline, a transverse incision is least likely to injure nerves
• The iliohypogastric (ih) and ilioinguinal (ii)nerves are sensory:
– ih injury  loss of sensation in skin over mons
– ii injury  loss of sensation in labia majora
• Both IH and II supply the lower fibers of the internal oblique and transversus, if
divided, denervate these fibers and can increase risk of inguinal hernia
Recap: principles of healing
• Patient factors that negatively affect wound healing:
– Diabetes, obesity
– Poor nutrition
– Prior radiation or chemotherapy
– Age
– Alcohol
– Ascites, malignancy
– Immunosuppression
– Coughing, wretching
• Hospital factors that negatively affect wound healing:
– Long operations
– Long time in hospital pre-op
– Drains through incision
– Shaving prior to surgery
– Type of suture
– Closure technique
Prevention of wound complications
• Same scalpel can not be used for skin and deep incisions (?)
• Avoid deep subcutaneous sutures, but may use 4.0 Dexxon subcutaneously to decrease
tension on the skin
• Never use cat-gut on fascia or subcutaneously
• Contaminated or dirty wounds:
– delayed closure
– staples with saline soaked gauze
• Opening of a bacteria-containing organ:
–
–
–
–
delayed closure
irrigation of all layers
monofilament, delayed: non-absorbable suture
systemic antibiotics 30 min before operation or asap and repeat if prolonged
case
Surgical intervention: anesthesia
• Method: general anesthesia
• Equipment: typical monitors, respirator, warming blanket
• Anesthesia will insert a nasogastric tube after intubation
Surgical intervention: positioning
• Position during procedure: supine with arms on armboards
• Supplies and equipment: insertion of Foley catheter, application of electrodispersive
pad
• Special considerations: high-risk areas (for geriatric, pay particular attention to skin
and joints).
Surgical intervention: Skin prep
• Method of hair removal: clipper or wet
• Anatomic perimeters: traditional abdominal from nipple line across chest from table
side to table side to mid-thigh
• Solution options: Betadine (povidon-jodid) or alternate: Hibiclens (USA)
Surgical intervention: draping/incision
• Types, order of drapes: 4 towels, laparotomy T-sheet
• Special considerations:
– in case of exploration: usually midline. It gives best exposure to all segments
of bowel (depends on location of lesion—could be paramedian or oblique, etc.)
Surgical intervention: supplies
• General: blades (3) # 10 and (1) # 15, electric unit pencil, suction tubing, hemostats
(all sizes); staples (optional)
• Specific
– Suture: ample supply of free ties. Sizes 2-0 and 3-0 are most common.
– Catheters and drains: may use Penrose drain for retraction
Lecture C2. Incisions, exposure of intraabdominal organs 2. Appendectomy
Major types of incisions
Longitudinal
 Midline
 Supraumbilical (upper midline)
 Infraumbilical (lower midline)
 Right and left paramedian
 McEvedy (1950) preperitonal approach for inguinal and femoral hernia repair
(McEvedy PG: Femoral hernia. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1950;7:484–496.)
Oblique
 Kocher for cholecystectomy (sec. Theodor Kocher (1841-1917) 1909: Nobel prize for
medicine and physiology, mainly for thyroid surgery)
 McBurney for appendectomy (Charles McBurney (1845–1913) in 1897 performed his
first operation for appendicitis)
 Right and left inguinal
 Thoraco-abdominal
Transverse
 Maylard
 Pfannenstiel
 Cherney
 Transverse muscle splitting
 Gable
 Lanz
Midline incision
Characteristics
• The commonest approach to the abdomen
• The following structures are divided: skin - linea alba - transversalis fascia extraperitoneal fat - peritoneum
• The incision can be extended by cutting through or around the umbilicus
• Above the umbilicus the falciform ligament should be avoided
• The bladder can be accessed via an extraperitoneal approach through the space of
Retzius
• In case of previous operations go higher and open peritoneum where unlikely to be
scarred
• Ensure hemostasis of the above layers before entering the peritoneum
Advantages
• Excellent exposure to abdomen and pelvis
• Easily extended
• Rapid entry into abdominal cavity
• Midline is least hemorrhagic incision
• Easy to perform
• Linea alba guide the midline
Disadvantages
• Scar may be wide and not beautiful
• Possible increase in hernias and dehiscence with midline
Paramedian incision
Characteristics
• Site: parallel to and approx. 3 cm from the midline
• The following structures are divided: skin - anterior rectus sheath (m. rectus is
retracted laterally) - posterior rectus sheath (above the arcuate line) - transversalis
fascia - extraperitoneal fat - peritoneum
• Closed in layers
Advantages

the rectus muscle is not divided (the incisions in the anterior and posterior rectus
sheath are separated by muscle)

has a lower incidence of incisional hernia
Disadvantages

takes longer to make and close

may decrease risk of incisional hernia vs midline but strength of closure is equivalent

increased risk of infection, intraop. bleeding, risk of nerve damage

if placed beside a midline, can compromise blood supply in the middle

restricted to need for excellent exposure on one side of abdomen/pelvis
Transverse Incisions
Advantages
• best cosmetic results
• 30x stronger than midline incisions
• less painful than longitudinal incisions
• less interference with respiration
• No difference in dehiscence rate
Disadvantages
• more time consuming
• more hemorrhagic
• nerves sometimes divided
• spaces opened and potential for hematomas
• limited upper abdominal access
Transverse incisions - Pfannenstiel
• most wound security (in case of pelvic incisions), least exposure
• usually 10-15 cm long
• separates the perforating nerves and small vessels from ant. rectus → may weaken
incision
• if extended past the m. rectus can damage ih and ii nerves
• may require subfascial drainage
Transverse Incisions – Maylard
• used for radical pelvic surgery
•
•
•
•
•
true transverse muscle cutting incision
good pelvic exposure
transverse incision 3-8 cm above symphysis
ligation of inf. epigastric artery before dividing the rectus
no need to include muscles in fascial closure
Transverse Incisions – Cherney
• like a Pfannenstiel incision but divides the m. rectus at the tendinous insertion to
symphysis
• excellent access to space of Retzius
• re-attachment of muscle tendons to rectus sheath, not symphysis → avoid
osteomyelitis
Transverse Incisions – Lanz
Characteristics

Special incision, better cosmetic results than McBurney

Main indication: exposure of appendix and coecum; mirror image (left iliac fossa) can
be used for for left colon (not for rectum).

Site: right iliac fossa.

As compared to McBurney: transverse, more medial toward rectus, closer to iliac crest
(spina iliaca anterior superior)
Disadvantage
Due to its transverse direction ih and ii nerves can be damaged, incidence of hernia is higher.
Oblique incisions
McBurney or gridiron
– Uncomplicated appendectomy
– Extraperitonal drainage of pelvic abscess
– Sigmoid colostomy
Rockey Davis (Elliot)
– Alternative to McBurney
– Extends to lateral border of rectus
Extraperitonal incisions for staging
J-shaped

3 cm medial to iliac crest

Extraperitoneal removal of paraaortic nodes

Can be left-sided also but right is easier
“Sunrise” incision



6 cm above umbilicus
Extraperitoneal removal of paraaortic nodes
Allows immediate irradiations
Closure of laparotomy
Basic principles of closing fascia
• As few knots as possible is best
• Place suture far enough back from edges of the fascia to account for some necrosis (1
cm back – 1 cm apart)
• Place even tension on the suture (appose, do not necrose)
• Avoid incorporating fat or underlying tissue when possible (except in en mass closure)
Fascia closure: Smead Jones technique
• “far-far, near-near”
• includes a “mass” far bite on each side followed by “near” fascia-only bite with next
bite
• theoretically allows good healing by removing tension with “far” bites and closing
fascia with “near” ones
• takes a lot of time
Muscle - midline incisions (Ceydeli A et al.: Finding the best abdominal closure: an evidence-based
review of the literature. Curr Surg.; 62(2):220-5, 2005.)
• rectus m. should not be sutured together unless symptomatic diastasis
• mass closure better than layered closure
• #1 or #2 absorbable monofilament suture
• paramedian: layered or mass closure
Drain – drainage in laparotomy
• “passive” vs “active”
• passive drains must never be brought out of the incision for risk of infection
• often used if wound is contaminated or if persistent oozing, or large potential space
• controversial whether prophylactic drains are beneficial in clean wounds
• closed suction may be beneficial in clean/contaminated cases – but mainly if no
antibiotics are to be used
Obese patients
• “morbid” if >130% weight or BMI> 30
• any transverse incision should be far removed from moist warm pannicular folds
• modified “obese patient” routine:
– cleaning of umbilicus
– pre-op shower
– 5000-8000 U /12 h heparin starting 2 hr pre-op
– sequential compressing stockings
– clip prep of abdominal hair
– careful prep, under pannus, too
– pannus retracted caudal
– running mass closure
– drains placed above the fascia, removed after 72 hrs or with output < 50 ml/24
hrs
– staples left for 2 weeks
Dehiscence
• Fascial dehiscence complicates 0.3% - 3% of all pelvic surgery
• Mortality of evisceration: up to 35%
– Superficial: skin down to fascia
– Complete: if involves disruption of peritoneum
–
Evisceration: intestine protrudes through the wound
Risk factors for complete dehiscence
• Metabolic
– Malnutrition
– Poorly controlled diabetes
– Corticosteroid use
– Older age
• Mechanical:
– Obesity
– Abdominal distention (incl. ascites re-accumulation)
– Infection
– Coughing
Signs
• Usually occurs 5-14 days post op (mean: approx. 8 days)
• Warning sign: seepage of pink fluid from intact wound
• Usually a tissue failure, not a suture failure (88% of eviscarations had tearing of fascia
and knots intact)
• Approximate, do not strangulate, or you will eviscerate!
Repairing a dehiscence
• Usually should be closed immediately
• Always in operating room
• If delay required (e.g. patient just had lunch)
– replace bowels with sterile gloves and
– soak with povidone–iodine lap pads
– abdominal binder
• Broad spectrum antibiotics
• Removal of necrotic tissue, clots, old suture
• Bacteriology, cultures from the abdomen
• Irrigation with warm saline
• Fascia:
– If intact: Smead-Jones closure
• Skin left open for secondary closure
– If damaged: retention suture with #2 nylon or polypropylene
• Suture: 2.5-3 cm from skin edges, passed through all layers, 2 cm apart
to allow for edema
• Leave for 3 weeks
Irrigation
• „The solution to pollution is dilution”
• Irrigation with saline or water is beneficial to remove contamination
• Irrigation with antiseptics, such as 1% povidon-iodide may be cytotoxic to fibroblasts
• Iv or oral antibitics are probably better choice if there is a concern
Laparotomy – GI operations - surgical conditions
Mechanical lesion
 Large bowel obstruction
 Band/adhesion
 Malignancy
 Volvulus
 Intussussception
 Fecal Impaction
Trauma
 Blunt / penetrating
Inflammatory
 Diverticulosis/diverticulitis
 Ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease
 Appendicitis
Vascular
 Ischemic colitis
 Vascular occlusion/infarction
 Arterio-venous malformation
Recap – history of appendectomy
1521: Jacopo Berengario da Capri (1460-1530): appendix as anatomical structure
1600- Vidus Vidius’s book of anatomy (Guido Guidi, 1500-1569): appendix.
cc. 1710: Philippe Verheyen (1648-1710): appendix vermiformis
1800: „Lower abdominal pain"
1812: Connection between peritonitis and necrotic appendix (Parkinson).
1824: Connection between periappendicular innflammation and necrotic appendix (LouyerVillermay).
1827: Connection between periappendicular abscess and appendix (Mellier).
1848: Surgical drainage of periappendicular abscess (Hancock).
1856: Surgical drainage of periappendicular abscess No.2. (Levis).
1874: Surgical drainage of periappendicular abscess No. 3. (Parker).
1882: Death of Leon Gambetta, Prime Minister of France. Autopsy: periappendicular abscess.
1886: Reginald H. Fitz (pathologist): „lower abdominal pain„ = "appendicitis”; proposes
surgery in case of signs and symptoms.
1887 April 27: George Thomas Morton: first successful human appendectomy, removal of a
perforated appendix.
1889: John Murphy’s series of 100 successful appendectomies.
Relevant anatomy
• The appendix does not elongate as rapidly as the rest of the colon: thus forming a
wormlike structure. Average length: 10 cm (2-20)
• Inner circular, outer longitudinal (continuation of the taeniae coli) muscle layers.
Submucosal lymphoid follicles enlarge (peak 12-20 years) and then decrease:
correlating with the incidence of appendicitis.
• Blood supply: appendicular artery (branch of the ileocolic artery).
• The base is at a constant location, whereas the position of the tip of the appendix
varies; 65%: retrocecal position; 30%: at the brim or in the true pelvis; 5%:
extraperitoneal, behind the cecum, ascending colon, or distal ileum.
• The location of the tip of the appendix determines early signs and symptoms.
Open appendectomy
Incision
•
RLQ (right-lower quadrant) incision over the McBurney point (2/3 of the distance
between the umbilicus and the anterior superior iliac spine)
• The subcutaneous tissue and Scarpa fascia are dissected until the external oblique
aponeurosis is identified. This aponeurosis is divided sharply along the direction of its
fibers.
• A muscle-splitting technique is then used to gain access to the peritoneum. Once the
peritoneum is entered, any purulent fluid should be cultured.
Delivering the appendix
• Retractors are placed into the peritoneum, and the cecum is identified and partially
exteriorized using a moist gauze pad. The taenia coli is followed to the point where it
converges with the other taenia, leading to the base of the appendix.
• The appendix is brought into the field of vision. Gentle manipulation may be required
to bluntly dissect any inflammatory adhesions.
Division of the mesoappendix and ligation of the appendix
Once the appendix is exteriorized, the mesoappendix is divided between clamps, divided, and
ligated.
Removal
• The base of the appendix is clamped then tied off with a 0 suture.
• The appendix is amputated and passed off the field as a specimen.
• The mucosa of the appendiceal stump may be cauterized to avoid future mucus
production.
• Purse-string suture is used to invert the appendiceal stump (some authors state that it is
not necessary). „Z” suture of the serosa.
• The cecum and appendiceal stump are then placed back into the abdomen.
• If free perforation is encountered, thorough irrigation of the abdomen with warm
saline solution and drainage of obvious cavity, well-developed abscesses is required.
Closure of the incision
• The peritoneum is identified, and closed with a continuous 2 or 3-0 suture. The
inferior oblique muscles are re-approximated with a figure-of-eight interrupted
absorbable 0 to 3-0 suture, and the external oblique fascia is closed with interrupted 20 PG suture.
• The skin may be closed with interrupted 2/0 monofilament non-absorbable suture,
staples or subcutaneous sutures can be used too. Use of staples is recommended if the
appendix was perforated and skin closure is to be performed.
• The skin should be left open in cases of perforated appendicitis, with delayed primary
closure performed on postoperative day 4 or 5.