PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE
Evaluation of Life Effectiveness and Leadership Development in a Challenge Day Program for High School Students
by
Terry L. Nail
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
with a Concentration in Arts and Sciences
and a Specialization in Leadership
August 18, 2007
Core Faculty Advisor: Chris Hables Gray, Ph.D
Union Institute & University
Cincinnati, Ohio
© 2007 by Terry Nail
All rights reserved.
ABSTRACT
Evaluation of Life Effectiveness and Leadership
Development of a Challenge Day Program for High School Students
Keywords: Leadership, Youth Development, High School, Evaluation, Life
Effectiveness, Experiential Education, Adventure Education, and Challenge Day
Terry Nail
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent Challenge Day and its
follow up Challenger Program improved life effectiveness and developed leadership in
high school students. Additionally, it examined the relationships between students’ life
effectiveness and leadership, and their ethnicity, gender, and grade in school. A
secondary goal of this study was to provide Challenge Day program staff, program
beneficiaries, and program sponsors with information on the outcomes of their program
activities regarding noticing oppression and isolation, implementing safe and effective
intervention tools, making contributions, and demonstrating acts of integrity. Challenge
Day has not had a formal evaluation of this program prior to this study.
This study was an outcome-based program evaluation with a pre-posttest design,
which included the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), developed by James Neill
(Neill, Marsh, & Richards, 2003), additional leadership items, program generated
questions, and a content analysis of self-reflection logs completed by students
participating in the follow up Challenger Program. There are eight domains of personal
effectiveness that have been identified and included in the (LEQ-I). These are time
management, social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task
leadership, emotional control, active initiative, and self-confidence.
The participants were 72 teacher-identified students in grades 9-12 from six
classrooms at Jefferson High School, Daly City, CA who participated in a 2 day, 12 hour
Challenge Day and Challenger Program that included facilitated experiential activities
focusing on breaking down the barriers of isolation, creating connections, and inspiring
students to be positive leaders of change. Three of the classrooms participated in a follow
up program documenting acts of change in logs for 12 weeks. All student program effects
were evaluated using data from surveys administered by the teacher prior to the program
intervention and then a post-survey three months after the intervention. Data from
journals/logs were used to record daily acts of change during the Challenger Program
follow-up activity for three class periods for three months.
The results of the study indicated that Challenge Day and its follow-up Challenger
Program did improve life effectiveness as five of the eight LEQ factors: social
competence, intellectual flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, and selfconfidence (Pre-Posttest) were found to be statistically significant. Additionally, the
results indicated that this program did develop leadership in high school students. This is
shown through significance found in task leadership in the life effectiveness measure and
the leadership measure. When compared with average change in outdoor and adventure
education programs (Neill, 2002), the effect sizes for leadership rated high. The effect
sizes for self-confidence, social competence, and emotional control rated above average.
The effect sizes for time management and task leadership rated average. The effect size
findings for this two day program were even more extraordinary due to the fact that that
they are being compared with programs that range from two to fifty-six days with an
average program length of three weeks.
This study found there was not a positive relationship between students’ gender
and grade in school and life effectiveness and leadership. However, youth who identified
as Latino/a showed a significant positive relationship between post self-confidence and
ethnicity (Latino vs. Other). Additionally, the results of the study indicated that
Challenge Day and its follow-up Challenger Program increased skills in noticing
oppression and isolation, practicing safe and effective intervention tools, and
demonstrating acts of integrity. The study also found that there was a significant increase
in participants standing up for themselves and for others.
The log data showed participants documented more acts of change out in the
world than in school. There was also a decrease in the documentation of acts of change as
the weeks after the intervention increase to 12 weeks. Additionally, the results indicated
that this program led to participants making contributions. The top five ranked acts of
change participants recorded in their logs were contributions, (helping others, helping
peers, connected with peers, hugs, and community service). This was the first doctoral
level research study of this nationally renowned program that showed significant effects
of this experiential two-day program. This study provided empirical evidence that will
help provide support for the organization (which has already served over 300,000 youth)
in their goal of “serving one million youth” (Challenge Day, 2003a).
v
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my wonderful family and friends without whom I would
have given up on this dream a long time ago. Grandpa, Robin, Warren, Juliet, and Dad:
thank you for your ongoing support, love, and belief in me. In addition, my wonderful
partner Mariposa for your loving and healing presence in my life. Carrie Ann for being
there when I was so sick, and for keeping me laughing to support my healing process.
Peg for your help with the data and technical support. Lucinda and Maurie for your
friendship, guidance, and patience with my process. Rich, Yvonne Mike and all the
people who support Challenge Day, thank you for the gift you have give the world. Even
when I felt like giving up, each one of you never gave up in your belief that I could finish
this program. I would also like to acknowledge my wonderful mother who suddenly
passed away at the beginning of my program. She always believed I could do whatever I
set my mind to, no matter what it was.
I would also like to acknowledge all of my committee members past and present, Chris
Gray, Lucinda Green, Pat Hanson, Elliot Robins, Maurie Lung, Rose Duhon-Sells, Chuck
Sells (who passed away while on my committee), Ed Wingard, John Adams, Barry
Heermann, Susan Horwitz, and Mary Ann Kluge. Few people would be so lucky to have
the benefit of so many perspectives, encouragement, and ongoing support in this process.
The university staff and administrators for your help along the way especially with all the
changes we all experienced. Thank you for you kindness and patience.
I appreciate each one of you along with your unique and special contributions that made
my Union journey possible. You really are “ The wind beneath my wings” and because of
you, I will realize this dream of completing a doctorate here at Union Institute &
University and use this privilege to make a difference in the world, especially for our
children.
With much gratitude and appreciation,
Terry Nail
vi
Evaluation of Life Effectiveness and Leadership
Development of a Challenge Day Program for High School Students
Page
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .....................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1
Background of Challenge Day ...................................................................3
Description of the Challenge Day/Challenger Program ............................4
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................6
Delimitations ..............................................................................................7
Definition of Terms....................................................................................7
Organization of Study ................................................................................8
II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................................9
Introduction ................................................................................................9
Positive Youth Development ...................................................................10
Positive Youth Development Programming ............................................13
Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs...........................14
Developmental Assets ..............................................................................15
Social and Emotional Learning and Development ..................................17
Life Effectiveness ....................................................................................20
Dimensions of Life Effectiveness ............................................................20
Rationale for the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ)......................23
Thriving and Resilience ...........................................................................26
Experiential Education .............................................................................29
Community Based Programs ...................................................................31
Positive Youth Development and Leadership..........................................34
Conclusion ...............................................................................................41
vii
III
METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................................44
Program Evaluation .................................................................................44
Sample Selection and Procedures ............................................................45
Informed Consent.....................................................................................46
Description of the Sample .......................................................................47
Description of Each Class Period ............................................................47
Description of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program ....................50
Data Collection/Instrumentation ..............................................................58
LEQ-I, Dimension Descriptions and Details for Item Scoring and
Questions..........................................................................................60
Data Analysis ...........................................................................................62
IV
RESULTS
......................................................................................................64
Relevant Results Regarding Improved Life Effectiveness and
Leadership Development .................................................................64
Relevant Results Regarding Relationship between Ethnicity, Gender,
and Grade .........................................................................................75
Relevant Results Regarding Practice Skills in Noticing Oppression
and Isolation, Making Contributions, and Demonstrating Acts of
Integrity ............................................................................................88
Summary of Study Results.......................................................................96
V
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................94
Introduction and Overview ......................................................................98
Unanticipated Results ............................................................................105
Limitations .............................................................................................105
Implications for Future Research ...........................................................106
Conclusion .............................................................................................106
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................109
APPENDIX A
Informed Consent Form with Human Subject ...........................................121
APPENDIX B
Challenge Day Letter .................................................................................122
APPENDIX C
Challenge Day Program Evaluation Survey ..............................................123
APPENDIX D
Challenger Program Student Handbook ....................................................126
APPENDIX E
Challenger Acts of Change Log .................................................................155
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Challenge Day Participation by Class ................................................................48
Table 2. Population by Age and Grade ..............................................................................49
Table 3. Population by gender and grade...........................................................................49
Table 4. Population by Ethnicity .......................................................................................50
Table 5. Dependant T-Tests and Effect Size for Time Management, Social Competence,
Achievement Motivation, Intellectual Flexibility, Task Leadership, Emotional
Control, Active Initiative, and Self Confidence (Pre-Posttest) ..............................65
Table 6. Means and Standard Deviations for Time Management, Social Competence,
Achievement Motivation, Intellectual Flexibility, Task Leadership, Emotional
Control, Active Initiative, and Self Confidence (Pre-Posttest) ..............................66
Table 7. Dependent T-Tests and Effect Size for Leadership (Pre-Posttest) ......................68
Table 8 Means and Standard Deviations Leadership (Pre-Posttest) ..................................68
Table 9. Average Change from Seven Meta-analyses Related to Outdoor/Adventure
Programs ................................................................................................................70
Table 10. LEQ Effect Size of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program Study
Comparison to Average Change for Outdoor/Adventure Programs ......................71
Table 11. Leadership Effect Size of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program Study
Comparison to Average Change for Outdoor Education Programs.......................71
Table 12. Dependent T-Tests, Means & Standard Deviations on Self-Reported
Leadership in School & Community .....................................................................73
Table 13. Independent Sampled T-tests, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
LEQ Scores by Ethnicity .......................................................................................76
ix
Table 14. Independent Sampled T-tests, Means and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
Leadership by Ethnicity .........................................................................................78
Table 15. Independent Sampled T-tests, Means and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
LEQ Scores by Gender ..........................................................................................80
Table 16. Independent Sampled T-tests, Means and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
Leadership by Gender ............................................................................................82
Table 17 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Means, and Standard Deviations on PrePosttest LEQ Scores by Grade ...............................................................................84
Table 18 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Means, and Standard Deviations on PrePosttest Leadership Scores by Grade .....................................................................87
Table 19. Dependant T-Tests and Effect Size for Oppression, Intervention, Contributions
& Integrity (Pre-Posttest) ......................................................................................89
Table 20. Means and Standard Deviations Oppression, Intervention, Contributions and
Integrity (Pre-Posttest) ..........................................................................................89
Table 21. Ranks for Act of Change ...................................................................................91
Table 22. Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 3 over
12 Weeks ................................................................................................................92
Table 23. Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 4 over
12 Weeks ................................................................................................................93
Table 24. Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 5 over
12 Weeks ................................................................................................................94
Table 25. Overall Results from Seven Meta-Analyses of Outdoor/Adventure Education
(adapted and updated from Table 1 in Neill, 2002) .............................................102
x
Table 26. Effect sizes (ES) by Outcome Category (reported by Cason and Gillis, 1994)103
Table 27. Effect sizes (ES) by Outcome Category (reported by Hattie et al., 1997) .......104
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Bar graph presenting means LEQ score pre-posttest. Scale begins at 4.0 .........67
Figure 2. Bar Graph Presenting Mean Scores on Leadership in School & Community ..74
Figure 3. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Ethnicity.................77
Figure 4. Bar Graph Presenting Pre-Posttest Leadership Mean Scores by Ethnicity ........78
Figure 5. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Gender ...................81
Figure 6. Bar Graph Presenting Mean on Pre-posttest Leadership Scores by Gender ......82
Figure 7. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Grade .....................86
Figure 8. Bar Graph Presenting Pre-Posttest Leadership Mean Scores by Grade .............87
Figure 9. Bar Graph presenting the Mean School Acts of Change for Periods 3-5. ..........95
Figure 10. Bar Graph presenting the Mean World Acts of Change for Period 3-5. ..........95
Introduction
1
Chapter I
Introduction
This Project Demonstrating Excellence (PDE) was an outcome-based program
evaluation to determine if a positive youth development program (Challenge DayChallenger Program) met its goal of supporting youth as “positive leaders of change.”
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent Challenge Day and the followup Challenger Program improved life effectiveness and developed leadership in high
school students. It also examined the relationships between students’ ethnicity, gender,
and grade in school and their life effectiveness and leadership. A secondary goal of this
project was to provide Challenge Day program staff, program beneficiaries, and program
sponsors with information regarding the outcomes of their program activities. Challenge
Day has not had a program evaluation prior to this study. This study is interdisciplinary
through its links to research in the fields of leadership, positive youth development and
experiential education. There is a lack of research within the field of experiential
education on experiential programs other than outdoor education There are also very few
studies that actually evaluate programs similar to the Challenge Day and Challenger
Program.
This was the first doctoral level research study of this nationally renowned
program. This research supports Challenge Day in its mission to help young people in
schools “be leaders of change” by breaking down the barriers of oppression and isolation
and learning to embrace acceptance across race, gender, and cultures (Challenge Day,
2003a). The results of the study will be made available to teachers, administrators, and
Introduction
2
policy makers who make decisions about providing funding for programs that support
students in their personal and academic development.
Many community-based organizations have focused on increasing youth
participation without actually engaging youth in their work. They have missed
opportunities to support and encourage youth “to recognize their own leadership
potential: to understand the broader barriers to social change and to act with other youth
or in concert with other adults to confront and overcome these barriers” (Burgess, 2000).
Concomitantly, many adolescents do not see themselves as leaders. They often
have other priorities in life and may not be in a place to even wonder about their own
leadership abilities. Young people of this country often experience a lack of influence and
real power in decisions that affect them. With increasing stressors including financial
strain, poor schools, and lack of support at home and school, many of our youth feel
isolated and unsupported; and they lack a sense of community with their peers and the
adults around them (Burgess, 2000). However, even if it defies the limits of their
imaginations, they are, in fact, the potential leaders of tomorrow (Fertman & Van Linden,
1998). Not surprisingly, many adult-run organizations and community systems have had
their own challenges in viewing the majority of young people as contributors, resources,
and leaders with strengths and gifts to share. Instead, they focus on those who are in
trouble and “at risk” for suicide, substance abuse, or violence.
Promising recent research in the field of youth development indicates a shift in
how we see our youth, with movement toward perceiving them as resources and assets
who have the potential to contribute positively to their own community (National
Research Council, 2002; Pittman & Fleming, 1991). Positive youth development is “a
Introduction
3
process that prepares young people to meet the challenges of adolescence and adulthood
through a coordinated, progressive series of activities and experiences that help them to
become socially, morally, emotionally, physically, and cognitively competent” (National
Assembly, 1994).
Challenge Day provides and supports several protective factors that contribute to
resiliency in youth as they deal with many of the core issues of isolation, self-destructive
behaviors, and violence in our schools and communities. The Challenge Day and
Challenger Program is a positive youth development program that embraces experiential
learning interventions with a focus on youth and adult participation.
Background of Challenge Day
The founders of Challenge Day, Rich Dutra-St. John and Yvonne St. John-Dutra,
started Challenge Associates (currently known as Challenge Day) in 1987. They sought
to provide a quality program for youth that effectively addresses issues that are difficult
for schools to handle. Additionally, they wanted to provide all youth the opportunity to
step forward and be seen as leaders. To date they have served over 300,000 youth in 27
states toward their goal of serving one million youth (Challenge Day, 2003a). They
formed the non-profit organization Challenge Day in 2001 to expand their programs to
reach more youth and adults. Having expanded and secured funding, they will seek
additional grant and public support.
Challenge Day is designed to reduce the violence and alienation deeply ingrained
within the school experience for millions of young people every day. The theoretical
foundation of Challenge Day is a multi-dimensional asset focused approach that
incorporates several positive youth development constructs, developmental assets
Introduction
4
(Benson, Scales, Leffert, & Roehlkepartain, 1999) and increasing social support and
networks (Challenge Day, 2003a).
The overall goal of Challenge Day is: To help young people increase their
personal power and self esteem, shift any dangerous peer pressure to
positive peer support, and help them develop leadership skills and
awareness by promoting self-acceptance and respect for others. The stated
goal of the one-day Challenge Day program is to ‘ignite each participant’s
passion and inspire them to take their position as positive leaders of
change (Challenge Day, 2003a).
Recent research on resiliency and youth development confirms that young people
are less likely to become involved in high-risk behaviors when provided with
opportunities to participate in safe, supportive, and healthy activities. (Astroth, 1999).
The Challenge Day curriculum integrates heart, spirit, and community by providing tools
for building an authentic community where personal truth and empathy can develop and
grow. Through the process of seeing the perspective of others and accepting what they
once felt as unworthy in themselves, youth discover compassion and learn about
forgiveness. When youth come together in this community, they can meet the challenge
of life and deal with conflicts, prejudice, and loss in healthy and non-destructive ways
(Challenge Day, 2003a).
Description of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program
The Challenge Day and Challenger Program provides young people with the
skills to be active agents of change in their schools and empowers them to support the
transformation of school culture into one of compassion, acceptance, and respect
Introduction
5
(Challenge Day, 2003b). The first day of the program is called Challenge Day (CD). This
is a 6 hour (one-day) program in which two Challenge Day leaders guide youth and
adults through a series of interactive and experiential learning processes. CD participation
is usually 80-120 youth and 10-20 adults. “The overall goals of this day are to help young
people increase their personal power and self esteem, to shift any dangerous peer pressure
to positive peer support, to help them develop leadership skills and awareness, eliminate
the acceptance of teasing, and develop the awareness of the presence and effect of social
oppression and violence in their lives” (Challenge Day, 2003b).
The second day is called Challenger Program. The Challenger Program provides a
framework for students to positively impact their school community through intentional
contributions and interventions. The Challenger Program manual (2003b) defines a
challenger as one who commits to participating in the follow up six-hour Challenger
Program, performing, and tracking one “Act of Change” (intervention or contribution)
every day in a log for the remainder of the school year. This program is intended for
motivated and committed peer group leaders.
During the Challenger Program, participants classify types of oppression, learn
how social oppression impacts emotional health and academic performance, and practice
skills for shifting oppression in their schools:
Specifically, the Challenger Program involves:

A 6-hour experiential intervention and contribution training program designed to
serve as a follow up program to Challenge Day.
Introduction
6
Goals

To provide student leaders with the skills, motivation, and support structure
needed to safely and successfully notice and intervene in the face of separation,
teasing, bullying, rumors, and other forms of social oppression and violence on
campus.

To teach student leaders the skills, motivation, and support structure needed to
safely and successfully notice and perform positive contributions to create a sense
of hope, connection, and change on campus.

To exemplify ways in which the overall school culture can shift toward one where
every student feels safe and celebrated. (Challenge Day, 2003b)
Statement of Research Problem and Sub-problems
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was
1. To determine to what extent Challenge Day and its follow up Challenger Program
improved a) life effectiveness and developed leadership in high school students. b) It
also examined the relationships between life effectiveness and leadership and
students’ ethnicity, gender, and grade in school.
2. To assess to what extent high school students who have participated in Challenge Day
and undergone its follow-up Challenger Program practiced skills in a) noticing
oppression and isolation, b) implementing safe and effective intervention tools, c)
making contributions, and (d) demonstrating acts of integrity.
This study was an outcome-based program evaluation with a pre-posttest design,
which included the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), developed by James Neill
Introduction
7
(Neill, Marsh, & Richards, 2003), additional leadership items, program generated
questions, and a content analysis of self-reflection logs completed by students
participating in the follow up Challenger Program.
All student program effects were evaluated using data from surveys administered
by the teacher prior to the program intervention and then a post-survey three months after
the intervention. Data from journals/logs were used to record daily acts of change during
the Challenger Program follow-up activity for three class periods for three months.
Delimitations
Results of this study will only be specific to the demographics of the particular
school and community locations considered in the study. Another possible delimitation is
that given the difference in the teaching styles of individual Challenge Day leaders who
implement this program nationally, this study may only be generalized to students in this
local program. The results of future research may vary from leader to leader.
Definition of Terms
1. Life Effectiveness is described according to the eight domains in the Life
Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ) (Neill et al, 2003). The eight domains of personal
effectiveness that have been identified and included in the LEQ are: time
management, social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task
leadership, emotional control, active initiative, and self confidence.
2. Leadership: For the purpose of this study the researcher will be using the definition of
leadership identified by Fertman and Van Linden (1998):
Leaders are individuals (both adults and adolescents) who think for
themselves, communicate their own thoughts and feelings to others, and
Introduction
8
help others understand and act on their own beliefs. They influence others
in an ethically and socially responsible way. For many, leadership is best
described as a physical sensation: a need to share ideas, energy, and
creativity, and not let personal insecurities be an obstacle (p.17).
3. Oppression: “An unjust or excessive abuse of power” Challenge Day (2003a).
4. Isolation: “An experiential sense of loneliness, disconnection and separation
experienced even in a crowd” Challenge Day (2003a).
5. Integrity: “Keeping your word, doing the right thing and telling the truth even when no
one else will notice” Challenge Day (2003a).
6. Safe and effective intervention tools: Over 40 tools identified in Challenger Program
Manual (2003b).
7. Contributions: “Anything you do for yourself, another person, or the world around you
that has a positive impact. It is an intentional act of love” Challenge Day (2003a).
Organization of the Study
Chapter I introduces the background information and why the study was
undertaken. The purpose of the study and its intended significance are explained as well
as an overview of the methodology, delimitations, and definition of terms. Chapter II
presents a review of related literature that supports the research. In Chapter III,
methodology and instruments used in the data are discussed. Chapter IV provides a
presentation of the results. A summary and discussion of the findings are presented in
Chapter V.
Review of the Literature
9
Chapter II
Review of the Literature
Introduction
This chapter presents the interdisciplinary literature review of positive youth
development, social and emotional development, resiliency, leadership, and experiential
education and reflects pertinent research in each of these fields. These fields have
contributed to the formation of Challenge Day.
Leadership is a critical element in the development of human beings. Leadership
development refers to “almost every form of growth or stage of development in the life
cycle that promotes, encourages, and assists in one’s leadership potential” (Brungardt,
1996, p. 83). Leadership development starts at a young age. “The skills that are necessary
for effective leadership, including the capacity to interact with others, develop during
adolescence” (Gardner, 1987, p. 5). Research examining psychological skills of
adolescent leaders indicated few differences between adolescents who identified as
student leaders and those not identified as leaders. This research contends that all youth
may have the potential to lead (Fertman & Van Linden, 1998).
The field of youth development has experienced a profound shift of focus. In the
1980’s and the beginning of the 1990’s the focus of research and policies was primarily
prevention. Beginning in the 1980’s the thinking was that problem behavior could be
addressed best by programs that focused on the prevention of the problem behaviors.
Throughout the 1990’s, research contributed to the expansion and focus on risk-oriented
models and policies (Zeldin, 2000). At the beginning of the new millennium, the
shortcomings of the preventative model began to emerge. This approach resulted in
programs that were “fragmented and incomplete” (Ogletree, Bell, & Smith, 2002, p. 41),
Review of the Literature 10
generally reactive, and problem focused. This emphasis is now being acknowledged in
much of the research as being unnecessarily negative, and operating from a premise that
youth are a problem. Another unfortunate effect of the preventative approach is that it has
“discouraged the assessment of the capacities of youth and their families to be engaged as
participants in the change process” (Lafferty, Mahoney, & Thombs. 2003, p. 36).
The most significant contributor to the shift from focus on prevention programs
was the fact that many of the findings in the research examining the effectiveness of
preventive programs revealed that just because a problem was prevented did not mean
that any actual personal development had occurred. Mahoney, and Lafferty (2003) saw
“no evidence that the absence of such behaviors or conditions equated with positive
development” (p. 83). As a result of these evaluations of preventative and problemfocused programs, a new vision and vocabulary for discussing America’s young people
has emerged. The new field of positive youth development surfaced through the
collaborative work of scholars, practitioners, and policy makers (Lerner, Dowling, &
Anderson, 2003).
Positive Youth Development
Positive youth development is based on the premise that youth are not problems
to be solved or fixed, but resources to be developed. The emphasis of this new field is to
“explore the strengths within all young people” (Lerner et al., 2003, p. 172). This is an
exciting time for both practitioners and scholars in the field as they begin to discover and
contribute their findings and knowledge to the field. This new emerging field presents the
challenge of enough time for research to support bringing together theory and practice.
Review of the Literature 11
This has resulted in relatively slow implementation of positive youth development in
youth programming (Zeldin, 2000, p. 2).
The National Collaboration for Youth Members states their definition of positive
youth development as:
A process which prepares young people to meet the challenges of
adolescence and adulthood through a coordinated, progressive series of
activities and experiences which help them to become socially, morally,
emotionally, physically, and cognitively competent. Positive youth
development addresses the broader developmental needs of youth, in
contrast to deficit-based models which focus solely on youth problems
(National Assembly, 1994, p. 11).
Another definition identifies the basic tenets of positive youth development as
consisting of: connection, confidence, competence, comparison, and character (Thomsen,
2004). Ultimately, the goal of positive youth development is to provide opportunities for
youth or adolescents to be thriving. An adolescent is “thriving” if “he or she is involved
across time in a healthy positive relationship with his or her community and on the path
to idealized personhood (an adult state marked by making culturally valued contributions
to self, others and institutions)” (Lerner et al., 2003, p. 173).
Positive youth development can provide opportunities to guide youth to become
future leaders, contributing to others and their communities. A study by Zeldin, (2000)
found that the indicators of positive development of a youth are “empowerment and
exploration, competence and mastery, emotional health, compassion and generosity,
community connection and belonging, and civic participation” (p. 3), all characteristics of
Review of the Literature 12
good leaders. Research supports the premise that good leaders understand leadership,
demonstrate leadership qualities, and have demonstrated those skills in life situations
(Imada, Doyle, Brock, & Goddard, 2004). According to Smith (2000), student leaders
have good relationships with teachers, contribute to organizations, have diversity, engage
in teamwork, understand themselves, can synthesize ideas, and can form good relations
with entities in schools or communities. There is an overlap of the values sought by
positive youth development programs and findings about effective youth leaders (Smith,
2000).
One of the most difficult challenges of the implementation of positive youth
development is that educators who work with youth must fundamentally shift the
perspective from which they view them. To support this shift from the focus on youth as
problems to be fixed to youth as resources, the metaphor of the acorn is useful to describe
each child’s unique hidden potential. This metaphor captures the essence of positive
youth development’s goal. Each child “is endowed with a seed for some unique genius”;
the challenge for them is to realize this destiny even through the struggles, mistakes,
problems, and difficulties they may experience as they live their lives (Brendito &
Larson, 2004, p. 197). From this viewpoint, many of these problems develop when
children’s “needs and potentials are ignored”. Many of the problems youth exhibit may
be solved “identifying those conditions that enable youth to achieve important life goals”
(Brendito & Larson, 2004, p. 199).
Educators are challenged to look beyond the problem behavior and look for the
“unique genius” present in youth and use this perspective to provide opportunities for
growth and development (Oman et al., 2004). This perspective asks educators to
Review of the Literature 13
remember that youth are works in progress and moving through a developmental process.
Seeing youth as “partners in their own development with voices to be heard” will
contribute to them as people who are empowered and recognized for their potential as
leaders and fully productive members of their communities (Thomsen, 2004, p. 80).
Positive Youth Development Programming
Several models have been developed from various elements of positive youth
development and are being implemented into programming (Brendito & Larson, 2004;
Gibbs, 2003; Kelley, 2004; Larson, Moneta, Richards, & Wilson, 2002; Lerner et al.,
2003; Mahoney, & Lafferty, 2003; Pollack, 2004; Quigley, 2004). Past research on the
preventative models revealed linkages between certain types of behavior and outcomes.
Much of this research focused on negative behaviors and deficits (Flay, 2002). The field
of positive youth development turned this around by examining the occurrence of
positive behaviors and then “using them as factors that predict positive youth
development” (Mahoney & Lafferty, 2003, p. 83). Research on the measurement and
evaluation of behavior has contributed to models of positive youth development
(Mahoney & Lafferty, 2003).
Positive youth development is seen as resulting from the combination of several
factors that have led to the development of “more comprehensive and multimodal”
models and the development of programs “which address multiple behaviors and that
involve families and community” (Flay, 2002, p. 415). This approach challenges
researchers to take into consideration the social, political, cultural, and even historical
forces when studying positive youth development (Swanson, Spencer, Dell’Angelo,
Harpalani, & Spencer, 2002).
Review of the Literature 14
There are several positive youth development models and programs that focus on:
identity formation, character education, health promotion, and social emotional learning
(Flay, 2002). Some programs emphasize the link between personal development and
academic achievement (Flay, 2002). The current writings on positive youth development,
both on a theoretical and practical level, are not aligned with one another. As a result
several different approaches are emerging. Some of these approaches include measuring
developmental assets, outlining the notion of “thriving” and determining whether or not a
youth is living up to the identified elements of thriving, describing what a positive family
or community looks like and working toward specific goals. “Health realization” is yet
another relatively new conceptualization that is being utilized as a basis for positive
youth development programming (Kelley, 2004).
Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs
Over the last 30 years there has been a significant increase in the number of
prevention and positive youth development programs. The Positive Youth Development
Project (Catalano, Berland, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 1998) examined evaluations of
positive youth development programs. This review of over 25 published programs
revealed several concerns evident in evaluating positive youth development programs.
The first concern was the low rate of follow-up on existing program outcomes. Another
issue addressed the type and diversity of measures used in the evaluations. The study
determined that the field could benefit from the development and use of standardized
measures applied to a measurement framework that assesses the whole child. Measuring
predictors of risk and protective factors, and positive and negative outcomes would
promote understanding of the effects programs have on these outcomes. A final area of
Review of the Literature 15
concern was the need for proven evaluation methods in the field of positive youth
development.
Developmental Assets
Developmental assets is one of the most prevalent models of youth behavior used
in positive youth development programs (Lafferty et al., 2003; Oman et al., 2004). The
concept of developmental assets is grounded in the resilience literature and is evidencebased within prevention studies. This framework promotes youth development by
shifting the focus away from deficit-based perspectives and toward a positive orientation.
Unlike previous deficit-based child development research, the developmental asset
approach, created by the Search Institute of Minneapolis, verified that 40 assets are found
to support healthy and thriving youth—essentially taking a strengths-based perspective
on factors present in healthy and thriving children’s lives, rather than addressing risk
factors in youth who struggle with life adjustments. The theory asserts that the more
assets a child or adolescent has present in his/her life, the more likely the child is to avoid
risk behaviors like substance abuse, reckless sexuality, problems at school, and emotional
problems (Scales & Leffert, 1999) and the greater the chance that the child thrives in a
healthy lifestyle (Lafferty et al., 2003, p. S36). Findings from a study of 600 youth in
grades 5 through 12 revealed that assets accounted for 10% to 43% of the variance in
thriving indicators (Oman et al., 2004, p. 1425).
According to Benson (1990), early research findings regarding the Search
Institute’s 40 assets found that assets appear to support the healthy development of young
people of many different cultures in a variety of life circumstances, including dealing
with multiple challenges in their daily lives. This research also found a distressing result
Review of the Literature 16
that indicated that 60% of 100,000 youth surveyed in the U.S. had less than 20 of these
40 protective factors. A more recent study found that not much has changed in recent
years in that “too few youth report experiencing enough of these assets” with most youth
having an average of 19 out of 40 assets (Mannes, Roehlkepartaia, & Benson, 2005, p.
235).
The range of assets includes numerous strengths that support a healthy child in the
areas of overcoming adversity, success at school, and helping others (Oman, et. al.,
2004). Other important assets include “family support, peer support, a caring school
climate, and interpersonal competence” (Lafferty et al., 2003, p. S36). Brendito and
Larson (2004) identify the importance of experiencing a sense of belonging to a
community where youth feel cared for, respected, and given positive attention. Assets
that support academic achievement include being creative, identifying individual gifts
and talents, and being open-minded and self-aware.
Several programs that use the asset-building verified the importance of this
approach. One program, Building Assets, focused on strengthening relationships and
increasing student engagement at school. Results showed improvements in these areas
and demonstrated that students understand how assets support them being healthy,
valuing diversity, and avoiding high-risk behaviors (Mannes et al., p. 240).
Research on peer-model programs contributed to the reduction of substance
abuse. Researchers also found that life skills programs that incorporated asset building
supported the reduction of alcohol and drug use (Oman et al., 2004). First Class, a
program from Naperville, IL, showed positive results indicating that the class activities
Review of the Literature 17
related to upper-classman mentoring freshman about the dangers of substance abuse
contributed to “attitudinal changes and consciousness raising” (Savoye, 2000, p. 17).
Social and Emotional Learning and Development
Another focus of positive youth development emphasizes helping youth develop
positive social relationships. Elias and associates found that the successful development
of thoughtful decision-making, understanding signs of one's own and others' feelings,
listening accurately, communicating effectively, and respecting differences can help
prevent youth engaging in high-risk behaviors, thereby developing relationships with
others who lead healthy lives (Elias, Lantieri, Patti, Walberg, & Zins, 1999). Social and
emotional learning theory received more attention when Goleman’s (1995) emotional
intelligence studies identified effective programs that built young people’s social
competence. The concept of emotional intelligence is defined as “The wider range of
qualities which enable people to excel – self-awareness, impulse control, persistence,
empathy, etc.” (Goleman, 1995, p. 22). This work also expanded on Gardner’s idea of
multiple intelligences and revitalized the character education movement. This research
offers a broad context for discussing and addressing this interrelated set of skills and
knowledge (Gardner, 1983).
The term social-emotional learning (SEL) developed when studies on emotional
intelligence supported the contributions that social and emotional factors offer in school
success. Elias (2004) reports that social-emotional learning supports the development of a
range of social skills that include “recognizing others’ emotions, managing strong
emotions, listening to others, understanding others’ perspectives and setting positive
goals, among others” (p. 54). Morris (2003) adds that SEL teaches “self-regulation, self-
Review of the Literature 18
monitoring and social skills” (p. 313). According to Elias (2004) research in socialemotional learning supports the premise that caring relationships serve as a foundation
for all learning and that what we learn is affected by how we feel. Programs utilizing
interventions that support problem solving, goal setting, and coping techniques lead to
better learning. These programs also require follow up to support students’ ability to
internalize the interventions (Elias, 2004).
Recent research indicates that the current focus in schools on standardization and
testing brings a price tag of undeveloped social and emotional learning because the
knowledge acquired in a standardized curriculum is not easily generalized to daily life
(Elias et al., 2003). “Children who are hurting cannot learn effectively” (Elias et al.,
2003, p. 304). The lack of affective education programs leads to social incompetence and
to children’s inability to express their needs and feelings effectively. Morris (2003),
however, asserts that standardization and SEL both emphasize “effective communication
skills and the ability to express thoughts” (p. 317). For this reason, social-emotional
learning adopted the strength-based approach derived from positive youth development.
When the focus is on “establishing positive relationships with students” and by “finding
naturally occurring contexts in which they can enact possible roles” students can learn
better (Elias et al., 2003, p. 304). Researchers emphasize, “SEL is not a program,
although there are hundreds of programs that address SEL issues” (Morris, 2003, p. 313).
However, they do suggest that SEL should be a part of all aspects of school, home, work
and community life. Many schools infuse SEL into their classroom management
strategies and teach skills that focus on creating a sense of a caring community (Morris,
2003).
Review of the Literature 19
Results from a meta-analysis of 165 published studies of school-based prevention
programs that focusing on social-emotional learning resulted in decreases in dropout,
non-attendance rates, important factors that support students academic performance
(Wilson, Gotterson, & Najaki, 2001). Another study discovered that it was possible to
predict how a student would perform in eighth grade based on his or her social
competence in third grade (Capara, Barbanelli, Pastorelli, Bandura, & Zimbardo, 2000).
These studies also found that the effectiveness of SEL approaches is highly dependent on
how well the program is implemented in each location. The Collaborative for Academic,
Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) mandated that an effective SEL program should
be “grounded in theory, teach students to apply SEL in daily life, build connections
between students and their schools, provide culturally appropriate instruction, involve
families and partners, include staff development, and also involve continuous evaluation
and improvement” (Weissberg, Resnik, Payton, & O’Brian, 2003, p. 49).
The K-6 Caring School Community program, used in over 50 schools, evaluated
and found positive results that demonstrated lower alcohol and marijuana use, engaging
in pro-social behaviors (such as being friendly and supportive), and using problem
solving behaviors to resolve their own interpersonal conflicts. Another evidence-based
program, Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), is used in over 250
schools to help students learn skills in (1) identifying a wide range of feelings, (2)
developing a sense of calm through breathing techniques, (3) developing empathy skills,
and (4) using an 11-step model for problem solving (Solomon, Battistich, Watson,
Schaps, & Lewis, 2000). Skills, Opportunities and Recognition (SOAR), another SEL
program, “provides K-6 students with opportunities to apply pro-social skills, such as
Review of the Literature 20
regulating emotions, listening and sharing, respecting others, cooperating in learning
teams and solving problems” (Weissberg & Resnik, et. al., 2003, p. 50). Evalution studies
of the program found that when compared with control groups SOAR students who
participated in the program had better academic performance, significant improvement in
school misbehavior, reduction in violent behavior and having sexual intercourse less
frequently (Hawkins, Catalano, Kosterman, Abbott, & Hill, 1999).
Life Effectiveness
Six of the eight domains in the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ) are
supported by social and emotional learning and development research. These domains are
social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, emotional control,
active initiative, and self-confidence. Research and literature specifically focused on life
effectiveness has been very limited. While James Neill, the author of the Life
Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), defines life effectiveness by the previous eight
domains discussed, he simplifies his definition by suggesting that life effectiveness in
simple terms can be viewed as personal effectiveness (Neill, 1999; Neill, 2000). An
expansion of this view is that life effectiveness is how an individual responds, acts, and
thinks in a variety of life situations. (Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997; Neill, 1999;
Neill, 2000).
Dimensions of Life Effectiveness
Time Management
The ability to plan and make efficient use of time is well embedded in Western
society and is a quality that is recognized as both useful and necessary for success in both
personal and professional life (Neill et al., 2003). While it seems to be an important
Review of the Literature 21
quality that is essential in everyday life, studies looking at the impact of interventions on
time management are limited (Macan, 1996; Neill et al., 2003).
Social Competence
This dimension includes the ability of an individual to function effectively in
social situations and incorporates skills in communication, decision-making, and problem
solving. All important conceptions of life success identified social competence as one of
the essential skills needed for youth to form and maintain healthy relationships with their
peers, and the adults in their lives (Neill et al., 2003; Hartup, & Moore, 1990)
Achievement Motivation
The more people are motivated to achieve the more likely they take action
towards reaching their goals (Neill et al., 2003). Interventions specifically focused on
enhancing motivation found improved achievement levels in adolescents (Nicholls,
1984). Other factors found to influence motivation include intensity and focus of the
effort, sustainability of motivation and behavior changes Priest & Gass, 1997).
Intellectual Flexibility
Intellectual flexibility refers to the ability of a person to appropriately adjust
his/her view to accommodate and act on the ideas of others (Neill et al., 2003).
Intellectual flexibility scales are used in research; specifically, the Personality Research
Form instrument that examines cognitive structure (Jackson, 1984). Research by Gubitz
and Kutcher (1999) found that positive outcomes in intellectual flexibility come just from
participating in experiential challenge/adventure-based activities. The literature supports
the importance and value of providing time to express thoughts, comments, and questions
at the end of the experience. This, in turn, gives participants opportunities to integrate the
Review of the Literature 22
experience, find personal meaning and discover opportunities to transfer the learning to
their everyday lives (Kolb, 1984; Priest, 2001; Terry, 2002).
Task Leadership
Task leadership is a critical element of leadership functions. It is the ability to get
others involved in an activity and motivated to achieve the desired outcome (Neill et al.,
2003). Research in this area focuses on the leadership characteristics of people in specific
leadership roles, like managers, or on events that identify emerging leaders who respond
to a given situation. The LEQ assesses an individual’s ability to take on and perform a
leadership role. Focus on completion of the task and maintaining a positive relationships
with those attempting the task are critical elements of leadership (Hershey & Blanchard,
1993; Priest & Gass, 1997).
Emotional Control
Goleman (1995) identified emotional intelligence as skill that can be taught and
can contribute to success and life effectiveness. Emotional intelligence is the ability to
develop self-awareness, display empathy, identify the relationship between emotional and
rational thoughts, and manage emotions. Many experiential-based programs help
participants learn these skills through group activities followed by a debriefing process.
These activities allow the adolescents an opportunity to learn and practice new skills in a
safe environment and then apply these tools to their real life experiences (Gass, 1993;
Neill et al., 2003; Terry, 2002). The focus of the LEQ is to help participants assess their
ability to deal with their emotions under stressful circumstances (Neill et al., 2003).
Review of the Literature 23
Active Initiative
Active initiative is the ability demonstrated by an individual who actively and
independently initiates new actions and thoughts in a variety of personal and work
settings (Neill et al., 2003). Extensive review of the literature by LEQ’s authors revealed
little research available to validate the idea of Active Initiative, considered a component
of life effectiveness (Neill et al., 2003). Active initiative contains important qualities like
innovation, entrepreneurship, and the ability to think “out of the box” which are
important elements for success in work environments (Stenger, 2001).
Self-confidence
Self-confidence is an individual’s general belief in his/her abilities (Neill et al.,
2003). Much of the literature does not use the term self-confidence; instead the reference
is generally to self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-concept (Stenger, 2001; Neill et al.,
2003). The authors chose this term because of its common usage in our daily vernacular
and because it is related to self-concept. The authors of the LEQ suggest that there is an
identifiable general confidence component of life effectiveness; the scale provides a selfassessment of one’s general confidence of success in work and personal situations.
Rationale for the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ)
Programs that have been using experiential learning and challenging-experienced
biased methods have been making claims that these programs are beneficial for
participants personal development since 1942 beginning with the first Outward Bound
program in Britain. Until the 1960’s most of these claims where based on anecdotal
success and a few studies with weak methodologies were conducted to evaluate the
outcomes of these programs (Neill et al., 2003).
Review of the Literature 24
From the 1960’s to the 1980’s there were more rigorous studies of outdoor
experienced based program outcomes. These studies included the use of instrumentation
such as the Rotter’s Locus of Control (Rotter, 1966) (e.g. Collingwood, 1972; Gaston,
1978; Marsh & Richards, 1985; Wright, 1982) the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory
(Coopersmith, 1984) (e.g. Porter, 1975; Richards & Richards, 1981), the Tennessee SelfConcept Scale (Fitts, 1965) (e.g. Marsh & Richards, 1988; Nye, 1975; Wetmore, 1972;
Wright, 1982), and the 16 Personality Factors (Catell, Eber, & Taksuoka, 1970) (e.g.
Hendy, 1975; Owens & Richards. 1979). A limitation of many of these instruments is
that they were not designed to measure changes that were directly matched to program
aims and often lacked psychometric structures that were needed for applied research
settings (Neill et al., 2003).
The use of multidimensional instruments with sound psychometric properties
linked to outdoor and experienced-based program aims increased in the 1980’s and
1990’s. These studies (Marsh & Richards, 1988; Neill, 1994; Marsh, Richards & Barnes,
1986; Mitchell & Mitchell, 1989) included larger sample sizes and more rigorous
methodologies. A problem with many of these instruments is that they were designed for
assessment purposes and not designed for measuring developmental changes. This is
partly due to the absence of instruments designed to measure the type of personal changes
that may occur in experiential and outdoor education programs (Neill et al., 2003). This
lack of instrumentation has produced inconsistent results in much of the empirical
research in the field (Hattie et al., 1997). While many programs are convinced their
programs are achieving positive results for participants, the lack of appropriate
instrumentation and methodologies demonstrate a need for an instrument designed to
Review of the Literature 25
target key areas of life effectiveness that are the focus of many experiential and personal
development programs. The LEQ was developed with the intention of providing these
programs with a practical and easy-to-use instrument for evaluating program outcomes,
which strive to enhance personal effectiveness (Neill et al., 2003).
Research using the LEQ
The LEQ is a simple and effective self-report instrument for assessing the effects
of experiential intervention programs. A limitation of the LEQ is the lack of evidence of
its concurrent validity supported by other methods of observation and data collection.
Strengths include “strong psychometrics, brevity, relevance to programmatic aims,
sensitivity to change and assessment of competence, educational value and promise of
new maturity in empirical experiential education research” (Ho Choon Mei, 2003, p. 31).
Neill (2000) created a database of over 5,000 participant responses using the
LEQ, the largest in the field of experiential education. Although positive changes
occurred in other programs using the LEQ, they are not as great if the program length is
shorter than a day (Neill 1999). Neill (1999) proposes that this may also be due to
participant age and adolescent developmental stages. Stenger (2001) found that eleven
and twelve-year-old children demonstrated less change the any other age group, except
fifteen-year-olds. Hattie, Marsh and Neill (1997) hypothesized that that these age groups
may not have volunteered for participation in the program. The program was probably a
requirement of school and parents. When programs are voluntary, participants tend to be
more motivated. Regardless of these limitations, the published studies of all versions of
the LEQ showed positive changes in participant’s life effectiveness scores (Eagle et al.,
2002; Neill, 1999; Neill, 2000; Neill & Flory, 2000 a; Neill et al., 2003; Stenger, 2001;
Review of the Literature 26
Terry, 2002). The LEQ holds much promise for contributing to the evaluation of
experiential positive youth development programs.
Thriving and Resilience
Many positive youth development programs strive to incorporate the concepts of
thriving and resilience into their approaches with youth. Resilience studies began in 1955
when Emmy Werner (1992) began a foundational longitudinal study in Kauai, Hawaii
that followed 700 hundred children until they reached middle age. Approximately 200 of
these youth were identified as at risk because of exposure to prenatal stress, poverty,
alcoholism, abuse, and neglect. Expected outcomes placed these children in compromised
life situations as adults, experiencing a life filled with even greater poverty, alcoholism,
unemployment, and crime. One-third of the at-risk subjects did well in school, had
fulfilling careers, and became healthy, confident, and self-assured adults. As they reached
their thirties and forties, they became more determined not to follow their parents’ paths.
Of those who did commit petty crimes as teenagers, only one in ten females, and four in
ten males, committed crimes as adults. Werner and Smith (1982) categorized resilient
qualities that helped these young people demonstrate competence and success even when
they grew up in high-risk environments. An extensive review of the literature by Bernard
(1997) reveals encouraging findings from a broader perspective. “When tracked into
adulthood, research worldwide has documented the amazing finding that at least 50 %
and usually closer to 70% of these ‘high-risk’ children grow up to be not only more
successful by societal indicators, but confident, competent, and caring” (p. 2). This
supports another aspect of resilience identified by Lifton (1994) who states that resilience
Review of the Literature 27
is the capacity for all human beings to change and transform even when dealing with
significant risks. It also reinforces Werner and Smiths’s (1982) research findings:
Our findings and those by other American and European investigators
with a life-span perspective suggest that these buffers (protective factors)
make a more profound impact on the life course of children who grow up
under adverse conditions than do specific risk factors or stressful life
events. They appear to transcend ethnic, social class, geographical, and
historic boundaries … They provide us with a corrective lens — an
awareness of the self-righting tendencies that move children toward
normal adult development under all but the most persistent adverse
circumstances (p. 202).
“Resilience is a set of attributes providing people with the strength and fortitude
to confront overwhelming obstacles” (Sagor, 1996, p. 38). Resilient youth usually
possess social competence, problem solving skills, autonomy, and a sense of purpose and
future (Bernard, 1993, p. 44). A study conducted by Fuller, McGraw, and Goodyear
(1999) explored what young people say about what contributes to resilience. These
findings indicated five main factors: “Peer connectedness (having good friends), family
connectedness (feeling that family loves you), feeling that your family respects your
decisions, school connectedness (believing that you fit in at school), and having good
teachers” (p. 168).
Protective factors are one way of identifying resiliency. Research by Bernard
(1995) groups protective factors into three major categories: “(1) caring and supportive
relationships; (2) positive and high expectations; and (3) opportunities for meaningful
Review of the Literature 28
participation. When these are present in family, school and family environments negative
outcomes may alter or even be reversed despite the presence of risk factors” (Bernard,
1995, para. 5).
Building resilience in youth involves reducing overall vulnerability, reducing the
impact of emotional stressors, increasing resources available to provide interagency
services, and activating the protective process (Lugg & Boyd, 1993, p. 256). An analysis
by Bernard (1995) reveals that a major underlying factor of social problems is the gradual
destruction of naturally occurring social networks in the community. Bernard (1995)
asserts the necessity to develop and implement strategies based on power sharing and
reciprocity, such as mentoring and cooperative learning, to strengthen social bonds and to
promote the protective factors of support, high expectations, and participation.
In a review of research-based educational practices that foster resiliency, Berliner
and Bernard (1995) identified prevalent common traits : (1) Caring relationships that
promote positive expectations and participation; (2) a curriculum that is thematic,
experiential, challenging, comprehensive, and inclusive of multiple perspectives; (3)
instruction that focuses on a broad range of learning styles, builds on the perceptions of
student strengths, and is participatory and facilitative; (4) grouping practices such as
mainstreaming, cooperative learning, and peer tutoring; and (5) evaluation that focuses
on multiple intelligence, utilizes authentic assessments, and fosters self reflection.
Another significant influence in resiliency studies is the influence of Bandura’s
(1977, 1997) work in cognitive social learning, and self-efficacy theory. He claims that
resiliency develops from a combination of behavioral and personal factors. Of significant
importance to his theory is the idea of the influence of model behaviors of others on a
Review of the Literature 29
young person’s own beliefs and cognitive competencies, often by the instruction of adults
in their lives and peer pressure. Wolin (2003) stresses the importance of positive
relationships and the role they have in resilience of young people. Protective factors
present both inside and outside of the family include “close relationships with competent
pro-social and supportive adults: and relationships with pro-social peers who abide by the
rules (Flynn, Hayat, Lagualt, Vandermeulens, & Petrick, 2004, p. 66). These emotional
bonds or child-youth-adult connections are recognized as critical influences on the
development of many models and programs including anti- bullying, anti-violence, and
mentoring programs for youth (Pollack, 2004).
Experiential Education
One approach to positive youth development is to provide youth with experiences
that challenge their character and personal fortitude. This concept is one of the central
elements in the theory of experiential education. John Dewey inspired a new philosophy
of learning and the educational process when he asserted that “amid all uncertainties
there is one permanent frame of reference: namely the organic connection between
education and personal experience” (Dewey, 1938, p. 25). Kurt Hahn, an educator and
naturalist, expanded on Dewey’s philosophy by developing physically and emotionally
demanding group experiences in the outdoors where experiential education processes
provided opportunities for the integration of learning experiences and application to
everyday life situations.
Kolb (1984) states: "Experiential learning is not just ‘fieldwork’ or ‘praxis’, the
connecting of learning to real life situations; although it is the basis for these approaches,
it is a theory that defines the cognitive processes of learning. In particular, it asserts the
Review of the Literature 30
importance of critical reflection in learning” (p. 7). Experiential learning provides
participants a direct experience of opportunities to build confidence, cooperation,
teamwork, creativity, trust; as well as to develop skills in decision making, problem
solving, conflict resolution and giving and receiving feedback (Kolb, 1984).
The Association for Experiential Education (1994) defines experiential education
as a “process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct
experience” (p. 1). Within the field of experiential education there are several models and
approaches that have been used even before the time of Dewey and Hahn. Long-term
wilderness programs for youth identified as “delinquents” have thrived since the 1920’s
(Long, 2001). Adventure education, a variation on wilderness programming, is “the
planned use of adventurous activities, a real-life activity or learning context, goaldirected challenges that must be solved individually or in groups, an outdoor or
wilderness setting, cooperative small-group living and specific, pre-planned educational
goals” (Baldwin, Persing, & Magnuson, 2004, p. 168). Priest (1990) broadens the
definition of adventure education by defining two relationships, intrapersonal (selfconcept) and interpersonal (relationships with others). Change takes place when
individuals and groups participate in challenging problem-solving activities that may
support them to grow and learn to overcome limits that are often self-imposed (p. 114).
Experiential learning programs can also simply include one-day events, like ropes
courses or events that include experience-based processes (Long, 2001). Project
Adventure created a project that tested a model of teaching to be used in public schools.
This project incorporated ropes course initiatives to promote learning by inserting
experiential processes into the curriculum. The outcomes of the experiential learning
Review of the Literature 31
project found that students who were normally viewed as problem students became
“alive, alert, and responsible” on projects (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliff, 1988, p. 6).
Wilderness and one-day ropes course programs strengthen orientation among college
students, and have positive effects on interpersonal relationships, social competence, and
personal accomplishment (Persing, 2004).
Bronson and Konrad (1999) make a connection with resiliency and experiential
learning. The results of resiliency and experiential learning research may be reinforced by
the common perspectives of viewing “people as resources, as experts in their own lives
and possessing innate mental health and well-being” (p. 2). Experiential education
programs were found to be effective in increasing self-esteem, self-concept, and
psychological resilience in adolescents. (Craigie, 1996; Goodman, 1995; McDonald,
1997; Neill, 1994; Neill & Heubeck, 1997). However, most of the past and recent
research focused on and is limited to outdoor education, specifically research on Outward
Bound and one-day Challenge-Adventure programs. Most other research that connects
youth development with leadership and experiential learning is in the area of service
learning, which is not the focus of this study. A gap in the research exists for programs
that describe themselves solely as experiential learning and are not outdoor or service
learning focused.
Community-based Programs
As the benefits from the shift in focus from youth as problems to a more positive
view of youth as resources with strengths and innate resiliency become more evident,
students of youth development concomitantly move away from the negative view of how
youth relate to their communities. Recent research supports the importance of the role of
Review of the Literature 32
relationships youth are forming with members in their community outside of their family.
These relationships may be even more influential in providing positive outcomes for
youth than how youth perceive their families (Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998).
Other studies demonstrated that these relationships, resources, and opportunities
available to them contribute to young peoples’ perceptions of self, values and skill
development (Scales, 1997). Studies show that programming that enhances positive
association between community members and creates community unity is good for youth,
including religious or spiritual activities (Morrissey & Werner-Wilson, 2005). Resilient
youth report having “more access to supportive teachers, clergy, neighbors and other
caring adults outside the family” (Morrissey & Werner-Wilson, p. 70).
Past approaches to youth development do not demonstrate the importance or
value of the participation of youth in community decision-making. Negative perceptions
of youth are prevalent in adult attitudes about youth. Many adults still view adolescents
as rebellious, resisting authority, in conflict with parents, teachers and peers, and
engaging in high risk behaviors (Zeldin, 2004a). One study using focus groups found that
only 16 % of adults “believed that young people under the age of 30 share their moral
values” (Zeldin, 2004a, p. 624). When asked what they thought about teens, two-thirds of
adults used primarily negative words to describe them, and only 14% of these adults
claim that they had come in contact with teens who were friendly and helpful towards
their neighbors” (Zeldin, 2004a, p. 624). Research supports the benefits of youth
involvement in the “adult world.” This involvement has the potential to maximize
opportunities for them to be active agents of change in their own development and in the
communities they live (Camino & Zeldin, 2002; Forum for Youth Investment, 2001;
Review of the Literature 33
Mclaughlin, 2000; Zeldin, Camino & Wheeler, 2000). The reality however, is that except
for activities like school, sports, service and celebrations, youth are often segregated from
non-familial adults (Camino, 2000; Colman, 1978). Often times, parents protect their
children from the harm in the world (Zeldin, 2004b). This youth-adult isolation is also
reinforced by many policies and institutional practices that do not provide opportunities
for youth engagement in community decision making, especially in civic affairs (Forum
for Youth Investment, 2002; National Research Council, 2002).
Many adults do not recognize how these negative views about youth and the
youth-adult isolation impact the youth in their communities. Youth are aware of this
isolation and the negative stereotypes placed on them (Camino, 1995; Gillman & Bales,
2001; Loader, Girling, & Sparks, 1998). Youth feeling isolated from the adults in their
lives can increase exposure to stress, conflict, and unhealthy risks (Baumeister & Leary,
1995). Students who felt socially isolated or rejected by their peers and teachers were
more likely to drop out of school and participate in high-risk behaviors (Battistich &
Hom, 1997; Fine, 1991; Roderick, 1993). These same findings were evident in a study
about students who were being bullied and felt that they did not have adult support
(Scales & Leffert, 1999).
Programs must give youth the opportunity to contribute and be involved in mature
decision-making in community life. Stereotypes placed on youth are not supported by
research and do not hold up when youth are asked about how they feel about their
families and the communities they live in. A national study by Peter Hart Research
Associates (1998) found that almost two-thirds of youth believe it is “very important” to
contribute to their communities in ways that give back. A significant movement toward
Review of the Literature 34
youth development models involves and engages youth in community decision-making
and teaches them that they can and do make a difference and that they can be agents of
change and contribute to the communities they live in (Zeldin, 2004b).
Positive Youth Development and Leadership
In reviewing the theoretical literature on positive youth development, the
challenge of creating the best strategies that apply theory to practice remains. When
examining what makes programs most effective, a movement is arising to understand the
processes and program content needed for effective implementation and outcomes.
As stated earlier in this literature review, previous research revealed that many programs
were based on the preventative model and were single-problem specific, “unable to
provide sustainable effects” (Flay & Alfred, 2003, p. S6). Many other programs only
addressed “micro level predictors of problem behavior and did not attempt to affect the
multifaceted distal factors” (Flay & Alfred, 2003, p. S6). Studies of successful afterschool programs revealed findings that contributed to more advanced ideas of what
makes the best positive youth development program. Some critical elements present in
successful programs included structured activities that involved youth working together
in a “shared learning experience” in a community context (McIntosh, Schmidt, & Chang,
2001, p. 47). Most importantly, these studies revealed that programs were successful if
the programming was challenging and created an authentic kind of involvement for
participating youth (McIntosh et al., 2001). These findings support the current direction
that most youth development programs use; incorporating youth participation in
developing their programs, while assuming leadership roles that leads to the development
of leadership skills in youth.
Review of the Literature 35
The goal of developing leadership skills in students that foster successful
community participation is prevalent throughout much of the literature on positive youth
development (Lerner et al., 2003). Participation in volunteer activities emerges as a
significant programming approach to positive youth development because it increases
youth’s altruism and helps build leadership capabilities, a skill set that follows youth into
adulthood (Morrissey & Werner-Wilson, 2005). Past research found that after-school
programming improves student outlook and attitude, and sports participation can improve
motivation and values. Findings from more recent studies however, show that increasing
the level of community participation where youth have decision-making opportunities
and effective mentorship, helps youth to sustain leadership skills (Barron-McKeagney,
Woody, & D’Souza, 2001; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003).
Other studies identify important values that improve self-perception, such as
intrinsic motivation and goal directedness; these are values that contribute to the
development of good leaders. Youth group and community service projects provide the
best opportunities to develop and put these values into action. The activities challenge
youth to work together towards a shared goal. They also learn to cooperate and are given
opportunities to practice being in leadership positions within the group (McIntosh et al.,
2001).
In a review of what works best in youth development programs, Roth and BrooksGunn (2003) concluded youth development programs, regardless of the activity, must
provide “real challenges and active participation” along with opportunities to expand
adolescents’ view of life by “exposing them to new worlds, including new people, ideas,
cultures, and experiences” (p. 98). Activities may take the form of direct services, like
Review of the Literature 36
tutoring, but the key is to “present activities and learning opportunities in a way that is
different from school” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003, p. 98). Encouraging youth
participation in communities begins with the adults in their lives. Adults who value
youth’s ideas, values and feedback help adolescents to “actualize their best visions” and
feel “a huge sense of appreciation and a desire to give back” (Stoneman, 2002, p. 221).
Future leaders, primarily students, are self-aware and understand the principles,
purpose, and role of leadership in communities. Future leaders also demonstrate integrity,
courage, sensitivity, and effective communication skills (Imada, Doyle, Brock, &
Goddard, 2004). Smith (2000) examined elements that predict future leaders from a
selected student population and found that those with potential leadership skills
contributed to campus and community activities. They also demonstrated effective
communication skills and had positive relationships with diverse groups of peers and
faculty. Other skills related to creating teamwork, putting ideas together, and reflecting
on their actions (McIntosh et al., 2001).
Programs that challenge youth to pull on their natural resources have been linked
to positive workplace experiences (LeFevre, 1988), task persistence (Bandura, 1990),
academic development (Nakumura, 1988), talent development (Csikszentmihalyi,
Rathunde & Whalen, 1993), and resilience (Maddi & Kobasa, 1981, 1984; Schmidt,
1998). When positive youth development programs provide challenging and caring
environments, youth will thrive. Several studies from well-regarded programs found
these qualities missing in the atmosphere they created for youth (Roth & Brooks-Gunn,
2003).
Review of the Literature 37
Because many positive youth development programs encourage volunteer civic or
community engagement, the emergence of the community program as the optimum
positive-youth development approach along with the call for developing civic-minded
leadership skills, have made community programs the forum for development of
leadership skills (Boyes-Watson, 2005). This movement has its challenges, however, for
two reasons. First, the misconception that youth are not interested in community-based
activities needs to be revised. Second, the breakdown of “neighborhoods” and the lack of
community-based activities available in the last 30 years led to family and community
structures changing so that children are often raised by a small group of adults including
parents, legal guardians, paid care-givers, institutions including schools and in many
cases, social services and the juvenile justice system (Putnam, 2001). The informal bonds
that connected families and children in the past are weakening (Boyes-Watson, 2005).
While family connectedness may be at a crisis point, social connections in the community
include informal relationships with networks of people beyond the family unit, many of
which offer children positive support, or “social capital” (Putnam, 2001). Research
provides evidence that the people and especially children do better in communities that
have more social capital (Runyan et al., 1998). Social capital consists of informal
networks of support that provide assistance and resources for families, especially in times
of crisis (Garbarino & Sherman, 1980). Some community-based positive youth
development programs contribute to the restoration of social capital in their communities.
This reconstructing of social capital provides a realistic foundation on which to build the
village referred to in the saying “it takes a village to raise a child” (Boyes-Watson, 2005).
Review of the Literature 38
A collaboration of public and private agencies has become more common in response to
this paradigm shift (Boyes-Watson, 2005).
These community-based programs provide opportunities for youth to work
together in a variety of environments and populations. Youth are empowered to be
partners in their development by contributing to programming decisions and are “allowed
to experiment with their ideas and to address errors that might occur in the process”
(Thomsen, 2004, p. 80). This contributes to a shift in how youth are perceived, as
resources and as the future “potential leaders, workers, parents and neighbors” (Thomsen,
2004, p. 80).
Many of the positive youth development programs directed at serving loweconomic status or urban ethnic communities recognize that focusing on leadership
development skills in participants will contribute to accomplishing their missions
(Bloomberg et al., 2003; Gibbs, 2003; Taylor et al., 2002). The EQUIP program for antisocial youth focuses on instilling a “positive moral potential” in a population of urban
youth (Gibbs, 2003, p. 148). Using this framework as a foundation, EQUIP provides
youth with opportunities to develop “the capacity to make mature decisions” through
decision making meetings that address moral issues and problems. This strategy
increased social-moral development because it involved youth in programmatic decisions
and provided opportunities for increased self- governance (Gibbs, 2003 p. 148). Studies
of youth in urban programs and dealing with high-risk circumstances revealed a
connection between resilience and the ability to identify future leaders (Taylor et al.,
2002).
Review of the Literature 39
The Chicano Latino Youth Leadership Institute demonstrates a more intentional
focus on developing leadership qualities in Chicano Latino youth. This program uses
developmental assets as a model of positive development in their community, rooted in
traditional Chicano values of collectivism to help youth assume leadership positions in
their communities (Holleran & Waller, 2003).
Another highly effective and creative ethnic-focused positive youth development
program called MAAT Center for Human and Organizational Enhancement emphasizes
moral leadership based on Nguzo Saba, which is the foundation of African morality. This
value system promotes the qualities of responsibility, reciprocity, respect, restraint,
reason, reconciliation, interconnectedness, interdependence, inclusively, participation,
patience, perseverance, sharing, sacrifice, and spirituality in youth (Harvey & Hill, 2004).
The results of the evaluation of this program and several other programs with similar
Afro-centric models indicated that “at-risk African American youth who participated in
both culturally relevant programs demonstrated statistically significant improvements in
their social skills” (Harvey & Hill, p. 67).
One common theme in ethnic-oriented positive youth programming is that some
of the principles of leadership of traditional ethnic cultures are being adapted in many
programs. One example of this accepted approach is found in the state of Minnesota
where a restorative justice program began to incorporate the idea of Native American
peace circles into their program design. The purpose of the circle in this program is on
repairing the harm caused by misbehavior rather than on punishing the crime (Quigley,
2004). The circle is a Native American traditional method for approaching problems. It
provides an alternative structure of communication to seek solutions and reestablish
Review of the Literature 40
harmony in the community. The rituals of the circle also help participants perceive their
strengths as individuals and community before beginning to address their weaknesses.
They also instill an egalitarian view of shared leadership in the group, as the circle is a
mechanism to allow all participants to talk equally (Boyes-Watson, 2005). Incorporating
the model of circles into their work has also helped programs such as the child welfare
agencies in the state of Massachusetts “build a social network of caring adults in the lives
of children” (Boyes-Watson, 2005, p. 193).
While some of these traditional cultural approaches to problem solving may seem
impractical and in some cases too “new age”, providing opportunities for spiritual
development (not necessarily connected to organized religion) strongly supports positive
youth development (Benson, 1997). Benson’s research reflects Erikson’s (1959) theories
related to ego and identity development, which assert that young people develop best
when they gain a strong sense of fidelity to an ideology that transcends the self (Lerner et
al., 2003). Erikson believed that when young people were involved in activities within
faith-based institutions, they felt connected to ideologies, traditions and a historical
context. The result of such connections helped youth look beyond the present moment
and develop “a sense of continuity and coherence with the past, present and future”
(Lerner et al., 2003, p. 177). Lerner and his colleagues (2003) purport that “it is possible
to suggest that spirituality is a transcendent virtue that emerges from behaviors (roles)
predicated on the development of an integrated moral and civic identity” (p. 177).
Youth involved in programs that combine service-oriented activities with faithbased activities are more likely to rely on these moral and value-laden frameworks as a
justification for the meaning behind the actions they are taking. This contributes to the
Review of the Literature 41
process of healthy youth identity development (Younnis, McClellan, & Yates, 1999).
This combination of integrated moral and civic identities and valued behaviors along with
spiritual development, (Benson, 1997; Younnis et al., 1999) support youth becoming
healthy adult citizens who “make culturally specific, generative contributions to self,
family, community, and civil society” (Lerner et al., 2003, p. 177). All of these qualities
contribute to healthy, thriving youth and provide a foundation for the development of
future leaders in their communities.
Conclusion
Youth programs changed their approach to youth development by moving away
from preventive models focused on fixing the problem, to focusing on the strengths in
youth that contribute to their resiliency and ability to thrive. This change in focus was
supported by a profound shift in theory and working paradigms from well-respected
researchers (Benson, 1997; Brendito & Larson, 2004; Gibbs, 2003; Kelley, 2004; Larson
et al., 2002; Lerner et al., 2003; Pollack, 2004; Quigley, 2004).
There is a lack of evidence supporting past views of adolescents, as individuals
who break away from their families, are disruptive, lack interest and motivation to
participate in structured activities, and isolate themselves from family and community.
The opposite is proven by the fact that family, community and school support are exactly
what youth want and need in order to develop and thrive in healthy ways. This theoretical
shift led to significant change from the narrow focus of earlier programs designed to fix
problems, to a comprehensive approach that encourages engagement and participation in
programs that challenge youth through experiential activities such as outdoor activities,
sports, creative arts, community service, spiritual development and leadership (Eccles et
Review of the Literature 42
al., 2003; Flay, 2002; Morrissey & Werner-Wilson, 2005; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003;
Thomsen, 2004; Zeldin, 2004b).
Existing research indicates that the most important elements of positive youth
development programs are those that provide sustainable opportunities for social and
emotional development that nurture resiliency and develop leadership skills by allowing
youth to be involved in decision-making and civic engagement in their schools and
communities. Schools have increasingly taken responsibility to provide meaningful
developmental experiences for youth. Many schools have responded to the need to
educate the whole child by providing interventions and programs, which address their
social and emotional development. While academic curriculum tends to be more
standardized and consistently funded, the educational approaches to social and emotional
development vary depending on schools access to resources. Many schools bring in
programs like Challenge Day to provide experiential, social, and emotional development
interventions. While there is often an abundance of anecdotal evidence of program
impact, there is a lack of empirical evidence that these programs are meeting program
aims and outcomes. Many of these programs have difficulty achieving effective
evaluations due to inappropriate measurement tools and lack of resources for tools that
may aid in examining program effectiveness. Increased access to federal recognition and
funding requires empirical evidence of results, which are statistically significant.
Much of the research in the field of experiential education is focused on outdoor
adventure education. Currently a lack of research exists within the field that evaluates
non-outdoor experience-based programs in the school setting. To date, this study is the
first to contribute to this area of the research. Program participants, stakeholders, and
Review of the Literature 43
sponsors of programs like Challenge Day may benefit from the use of a researched and
validated instrument, the LEQ, which is intended to target areas of life effectiveness that
are often the focus of these youth development programs. This study contributes to the
growing need for research and evaluation of experienced-based and personal
development programs in schools. Providing effective evaluation processes and empirical
evidence for these programs may assist schools in securing the financial resources to
provide learning experiences that authentically engage youth and provide them with
skills, values, and relationships that will help them throughout their lives and will help all
members of our communities, as these youth become the community leaders of
tomorrow.
.
Methodology 44
Chapter III
Methodology
This chapter provides a detailed description of the methodology used to determine
changes in leadership and life effectiveness in high school students participating in the
positive youth development Challenge Day-Challenger Program. A secondary goal of
this study was to provide Challenge Day program staff, program beneficiaries, and
program sponsors with information regarding the outcomes of their program activities
regarding the following: noticing oppression and isolation, implementing safe and
effective intervention tools, making contributions, and demonstrating acts of integrity.
This study was an outcome-based program evaluation with a pre-posttest design,
which included the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), developed by James Neill
(Neill, et al., 2003), additional leadership items, program generated questions, and a
content analysis of self-reflection logs completed by students participating in the follow
up Challenger Program.
Program Evaluation
McNamera (1999, p. 3) states “program evaluation is carefully collecting
information about a program or some aspect of the program in order to make necessary
decisions about the program.” There are many types of program evaluations that include
a variety of methods of evaluation (United Way of America, 2002). An outcome-based
evaluation, according to the United Way of America’s book, Measuring Program
Outcomes: A Practical Approach (United Way of America, 1996, p. 2) “looks at
programs as systems that have inputs, activities/processes, outputs” and defines outcomebased program evaluation as follows “outcomes evaluation looks at
Methodology 45
impacts/benefits/changes to the clients (as a result of the program(s) efforts) during
and/or after their participation in programs.”
Research conducted by the United Way of America (2002) confirmed that
program evaluation with an outcome focus is becoming increasingly important for
nonprofit organizations and is being required by funding sources. This type of evaluation
helps the organization identify if their program activities do, in fact, bring about the
outcomes intended for participants in the program (United Way of America, 2002).
Sample Selection and Procedures
The participants were students from Jefferson High School in Daly City,
California. This was a convenience sample. The organization Challenge Day chose this
school and offered to provide this program for the school based on a relationship with a
teacher. The teacher had done Challenge Day programs with her students the year before.
She had demonstrated an ability and willingness to help with the follow up
implementation and data collection. The students were invited by the teacher of the
classes listed below to participate as a large group in a one day Challenge Day and the
follow up Challenger Program on the second day. The participants experienced a
standardized Challenge Day and Challenger Program curriculum. Challenge Day and
Challenge Program Leaders go though very specific training and are given a script to
learn (with the exception of personal stories) that is to be closely followed for all
programs. The researcher observed some of the training sessions and materials used for
the leaders.
The program effects were evaluated using data from surveys administered by the
teacher prior to the program intervention and then a post-survey three months after the
Methodology 46
intervention. Data from “Acts of Change” journals/logs were used to record daily acts of
change during the Challenger Program follow up activity for three class periods for three
months.
Informed Consent
The study and the informed consent form (see Appendix A) for research with
human subjects was approved by the researchers Doctoral Committee on October 25,
2003 before the university policy change stating that beginning November 1, 2003 the
Institutional Review Board will need to approve the study. This research began before the
November 1, 2003 date. The study used only data from students whose parents provided
signed informed consent forms. Written consent to participate in the study was also
obtained from the students themselves, with the understanding that not providing consent
would not affect their academic or group status. Although the teacher acknowledged that
the Challenge Day and Challenger Program was not part of the school curriculum, she
offered the Challenge Day and Challenger Program as part of her class activities.
Participants were not graded for participation or given extra points for doing the Acts of
Change logs. All participating students were given an identification number in order to
match the surveys before and after the program while still ensuring confidentiality. The
teacher retained a master list of student names and numbers. Only the identification
numbers were provided with the submitted data. The logs were coded with the same
identification numbers. The data collection process took place in the spring of 2004.
Challenge Day cofounder Yvonne St. John-Dutra granted formal permission for the
organizations involvement in the study (see Appendix B).
Methodology 47
Description of the Sample
Participants in the study included 72 teacher-identified students from six class
periods taught by one teacher at Jefferson High School in Daly City, California). Table 1
shows the number of participants by class period in Challenge Day only and 43
participants in both the Challenge Day and the Challenger Program. The age and grade of
the participants are shown in Table 2. Table 3 show as breakdown of participants by
gender and grade. This high school is an urban high school with a student population that
includes predominately Latino and Filipino students (identified as Asian-American in this
study (shown in Table 4).
Description of Each Class Period
First Period
This period was a ninth grade Algebra A class from 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m.
Second Period
This period was a ninth grade Algebra A class from 9:06 a.m. to 10:02 a.m.
Third Period.
This period was a twelfth grade Step to College class from 10:08 a.m. to 11:04 a.m.
Fourth Period
This period was an eleventh grade Step to College class from 11:10 a.m. to 12:06 p.m.
Fifth Period
This period was an eleventh grade Step to College class from 12:06 p.m. to 12:41 p.m.
Sixth Period
This period was a tenth through twelfth grade Algebra B class from 1:49 p.m. to 2:45
p.m.
Methodology 48
Table 1.
Challenge Day and Challenger Program Participation by Class
# participants
per period
# participants
Challenge Day
only
# participants
Challenge Day
and Challenger
Program
Both Days
% participants
of Total
1
18
8
10
25.0
2
8
5
3
11.11
3
9
2
7
12.5
4
13
1
12
18.06
5
8
0
8
11.11
6
16
13
3
22.22
Sample Total
72
29
43
100%
Class Period
Note: Only students that participated in a minimum of the first Challenge Day program were included in
the study. Some students did just the first day and not the second day.
Methodology 49
Table 2.
Sample by Age and Grade
Grade
Age
9
10
11
12
Total
13
1
0
0
0
1
14
20
0
0
0
20
15
4
13
0
0
17
16
0
3
15
0
18
17
0
0
6
5
11
18
0
0
1
3
4
19
0
0
0
1
1
Total
25
16
22
9
72
Male
Female
Total
% Male
% Female
9
14
11
25
56.0
44.0
10
8
8
16
50.0
50.0
11
5
17
22
22.7
77.3
12
1
8
9
11.1
88.9
Total
28
44
72
38.9
61.1
Table 3.
Sample by Gender and Grade
Grade
Methodology 50
Table 4.
Sample by Ethnicity
Ethnicity
# of Participants
% of Sample Total
African-American, African, Caribbean
7
9.7
Latino/a, Hispanic, Chicano
32
44.4
Asian, Asian-American
19
26.4
Pacific Islander
16
22.2
Native American
5
6.9
European American, Caucasian
1
1.4
Other
3
4.2
Mixed Ethnicity
6
8.3
Totala
88
123.6
Note. The category Asian, Asian-American includes Filipino.
aThe
total number is higher than the sample total of 72 and the percentage is higher than 100% because
nine participants marked more than one category.
Description of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program
According to Challenge Day (2003b), the Challenge Day and Challenger Program
provides young people with the skills to be active agents of change in their schools and
empowers them to support the transformation of school culture into one of compassion,
acceptance, and respect. The first day of the program is called Challenge Day. This is a 6hour (one day) program in which two Challenge Day Leaders guide youth and adults
through a series of interactive and experiential learning processes. Challenge Day
participation is usually 80-120 youth and 10-20 adults. “The overall goals of this day are
to help young people increase their personal power and self esteem, to shift any
dangerous peer pressure to positive peer support, to help them develop leadership skills
Methodology 51
and awareness, eliminate the acceptance of teasing, and develop the awareness of the
presence and effect of social oppression and violence in their lives” (Challenge Day,
2003a).
While the structure of the Challenge Day remains the same, every Challenge Day
is unique due to student’s individual sharing of life experiences. Music, chosen for its
incorporation of inspirational messages and Challenge Day philosophy, is played to open
the day and is integrated throughout the day. The events in the school program were as
follows. The day began with an introduction from the Challenge Day Leaders followed
by two energizer activities that provided the students and the adult volunteers with
opportunities for introductions. This process took 30 minutes. Then a Challenge Day
Leader facilitated a large group in a discussion in which students are invited to explore
the opportunity to “create the school of your dreams.” Students were introduced to the
concepts of notice, choose, and act. “Notice what is happening in the world around them,
choose actions to create positive change, and act as a living example of the power of
contribution and compassion” (Challenge Day, 2003b). This process took 15 minutes.
The next activity was a norm setting activity to create a physically and
emotionally safe environment. To reinforce the norm setting, a Challenge Day Leader
shared a personal story about an experience of teasing and its effect. Students then
participated in a short activity to introduce the concept of comfort zones and were then
asked to agree to these norms. This process took about 30 minutes.
The next activity was a group discussion facilitated by a Challenge Day Leader
about people separating because of perceived differences and connecting this as the
source of people’s loneliness. This led into a large group partner shared activity focused
Methodology 52
on differences. This activity lasted about 15 minutes. A group discussion followed this
with Challenge Day Leaders asking questions and students contributing. Students were
invited to share about different ways they appreciate each other. Then a Challenge Day
Leader spoke about the importance of healthy human contact and connection leading to a
demonstration of giving appropriate hugs. This process lasted 15 minutes. The students
participated in another large group activity that focused on increasing their physical
contact and connections with each other. This process lasted about 5 minutes. In the next
activity, students were asked to practice expressing respect and creating connections with
one another. After the activity, students and adult volunteers were invited to reflect about
this experience. This process took about 25 minutes.
The Challenge Day Leaders then led a group discussion introducing the concepts
of the gift of listening, sharing feelings in healthy ways, and how keeping feelings inside
can lead to unhealthy and hurtful behaviors. One Challenge Day Leader described a
personal experience with music playing in the background. The Challenge Day Leader
invited the students to find ways to express their feelings in healthy ways, to reach out for
support, and to share more of themselves with friends and family. Students were invited
to close their eyes in a guided process that asked them to reflect on the students’ daily life
experiences. Students were then given an opportunity to share what was coming up for
them with the rest of the group. This process lasted about 40 minutes. Then there was a
10 minute break.
The next activity was a tag game that included hugging to avoid being tagged.
This game took 10 minutes. Students were then divided into groups of six students and
one adult volunteer. The groups were as gender balanced as possible and students were
Methodology 53
randomly assigned to the groups. Students were asked to answer the question “If you
really knew me, you would know…” Students were invited to challenge themselves and
share things that people do not know about them and things that will help them get to
know who they really are. Students were then asked if they noticed any difference in how
they felt before they shared and how they feel now. They were given the opportunity to
share with their experiences with the large group. This process took 40 minutes. Students
were then given 30 minutes for lunch and were given an invitation to partner up with
someone they do did not know and to use this time to have both people share their life
stories with each other. They were encouraged to take some of the things that they had
learned and practice them with each other. They were also encouraged by Challenge Day
Leaders to keep finding ways to practice appreciating each other.
After lunch, students played a team oriented energizer game with a giant earth
ball. This game lasted 20 minutes. Students sat together on the floor for a large group
discussion about the cycles and impact of oppression, privilege, and power imbalances. A
Challenge Day Leader told a personal story about an experience he had with these issues
and how it affected him. This process lasted 25 minutes.
This led to the next activity called the Power Shuffle in which students were
asked to step over the line if they had experienced various types of oppression and pain in
their lives. There are many questions asked, and all students and adults crossed the line
several times. This process lasted 25 minutes. Students were gathered in their small
groups and were asked to give everyone in the group a chance to express any thoughts or
feelings that came up for them during the activity. This lasted about 15 minutes.
Methodology 54
Students and adults were invited by Challenge Day Leaders to contribute in a
large group discussion called “Speak Out.” This lasted about 45 minutes. Students then
paired up with their lunch-time partner and were asked to share with that person ways
that they make a difference in the world, what they are willing to do to practice being
more loving to themselves, and what they appreciated about the other person. This
process lasted 15 minutes. Then Challenge Day Leaders made final comments and
invited students to share their appreciation with as many as people as possible before they
left. This took five minutes until the bell rang and the program was officially over for the
day.
The follow up Challenger Program provides a framework for students to
positively impact their school community through intentional contributions and
interventions. The Challenger Program Manual (Challenge Day, 2003b) defines a
challenger as one who commits to participating in the follow up six-hour Challenger
Program, performing and tracking one Act of Change (intervention or contribution) every
day in logs for the remainder of the school year, and participate in regularly scheduled
meetings. This program is intended for motivated and committed peer group leaders. The
Challenger Program occurs the day after Challenge Day with students who went to
Challenge Day. Some students who were absent and did not go the Challenge Day the
first day did go to this day. These students were not included in the study.
During the Challenger Program, participants classified types of oppression,
learned how social oppression impacts emotional health and academic performance, and
practiced skills for shifting oppression in their schools.
Methodology 55
Specifically, the Challenger Program involved a 6-hour experiential intervention and
contribution training program designed to serve as a follow up program to Challenge
Day. The following describe the goals of the Challenger Program (Challenge Day,
2003b).

To provide student leaders with the skills, motivation, and support structure needed to
safely and successfully notice and intervene in the face of separation, teasing,
bullying, rumors, and other forms of social oppression and violence on campus.

Teaching student leaders the skills, motivation, and the support structure needed to
safely and successfully notice and perform positive contributions to create a sense of
hope, connection, and change on campus.

Exemplifying ways in which the overall school culture can shift toward one where
every student feels safe and celebrated.
The Challenger Program started with students and adults being invited to greet
each other while music was playing. This activity lasted about 10 minutes and led into an
introduction exercise where students each introduced themselves with a microphone.
They reviewed Challenge Day lessons learned and the concept of a toolbox was
introduced. Students were invited to discuss with a partner what their toolbox looked like,
as well as what was in it that served them and what did not. This activity lasted 20
minutes.
In a large group discussion, students were then asked to share what they would
like to let go of. The discussion lasted 15 minutes. Challenger Program Leaders then
introduced students to the tool of visualization, using questions and music in the
background to guide student through a visualization exercise. One of the Challenger
Methodology 56
Program Leaders introduced the concept of different learning styles. Students were asked
if they knew what their learning styles were. This led into an introduction to the concept
of notice, choose, and act. Challenger Program Leaders invited students to join them with
hand signals and clapping to go along with this to help them remember using the different
learning styles. This activity lasted 30 minutes.
An energizer/mixer game was played with music in the background. This activity
was 10 minutes long. In the next activity, students got in pairs and matched body parts,
for example, elbow to elbow, and then were invited to discuss with each other the answer
to several questions asked by the Challenger Program Leader. This lasted 10 minutes.
Students were then asked to get into to pairs sitting down. Challenger Program
Leaders invited students to make eye contact with their partner, to notice how they were
feeling, and reflect internally on the answers to several questions asked by the Challenger
Program Leader. Students were then invited to participate in an activity in which they
stand up in their spot if the answer to the question is true for them. Questions were related
to situations in which they may have experienced different types of oppression and
challenges. This activity lasted 25 minutes.
Students were next introduced to writing as a tool for reflection and integration.
They were invited to consider adding this to their toolbox. In the next exercise, students
were given Challenger Program handbooks (Appendix D) to write down their answer to
several questions asked by the Challenger Program Leader. Students were then invited to
make a list of words describe the school of their dreams on a large paper in front of the
room. This activity lasted 30 minutes.
Methodology 57
In a paired activity, students then shared the answer to several questions related to
behaviors that hold them back from taking the actions they need to create the school of
their dreams. Students were then invited to share with the large group some of their
answers. This activity lasted about 30 minutes.
A Challenger Program Leader told a story about making a difference and then
invited students to discuss ways that they can make a difference. Students were invited to
stand up and share their answers with the large group. This activity lasted 25 minutes. A
Challenger Program Leader invited them to demonstrate one way that each of them can
help to change the world. This activity lasted 5 minutes.
A Challenger Program Leader then led a discussion about common forms of
separation and violence. Students were introduced to more examples of tools from their
handbook to put in their toolbox. Some examples from the Challenger Handbook include:
using “I” vs. “You” messages, using feeling words, using the rumor elimination model,
sharing appreciations, saying thank you, etc.) Students discussed their own ideas of
contributions and interventions that they could do to break down the barriers of
separation and isolation. This activity lasted 30 minutes. Challenger Program Leaders
invited students to get back in their groups during lunch and pick a scenario from the
Challenger Handbook.
After lunch, Challenger Program Leaders welcomed them back with some
comments about the morning and connected them to the next activity. Students were
asked to choose scenarios from the Challenger Handbook and write down what they
would do in some of the situations, and then share their thoughts with a partner. This
activity took 15 minutes. Students then forward in their small groups, performed their
Methodology 58
scenarios, and practiced role-playing using some of their new tools of interventions and
contributions. Part way through the activity, the Challenger Program Leaders led a quick
energizer. The whole activity took 60 minutes.
A Challenger Program Leader led a large group discussion with students about
confidentiality and reporting laws for which adults (especially teachers) are responsible.
This lasted about 10 minutes. In their small groups, students were then invited to stand up
and do a commercial that demonstrated what is great about themselves. The group was
instructed to cheer them on and share appreciations. This lasted 20 minutes. Students
were invited to share with the large group any final comments, feeling or thoughts that
were coming up. Challenge Day Leaders both shared final comments and ended the
program inviting people to share hugs and appreciations with as many peoples as
possible, music was playing in the background. The lasted 15 minutes and the program
was then completed. Many students stayed around and help put chairs away.
Data Collection/Instrumentation
Survey
The two page, 44 item survey (see Appendix C) contains both program-generated
questions and items from an existing instrument, the “Life Effectiveness Questionnaire”
(LEQ). The LEQ (see Part I of the survey in Appendix C) is a self-report instrument
specifically designed for the purposes of measuring the impact of educational,
psychological, and training interventions upon participants, which aim to enhance
personal development (Neill et al., 2003). The LEQ was tested on approximately 5000
individuals. Psychometric testing was completed to determine the reliability and validity
on the LEQ. Seven major iterations involving the use of confirmatory factor analysis
Methodology 59
resulted in the instrument demonstrating identifiable factors with good internal
consistency and stable factorial structure for both males and females and for both
adolescents and adults. The study results for validity showed that all but three individual
items had factor loadings of at least .70. Factor loadings for Time Management TM01
.736, TM17 .748, TM25 .860; Social Competence SO02 .875, SO10 .865, SO18 .680;
Achievement Motivation AM03 .648, AM11 .887, AM19 .755; Intellectual Flexibility
IF20 .561, IF28 .813, IF36 .791; Task Leadership TL15 .630, TL31 .862, TL39 .798;
Emotional Control EC08 .853, EC17 .777, EC40 .850; Active Initiative AI44 .753, AI50
.830, AI59 .889; Self Confidence SC45 .783, SC48 .752, SC54 .847. Results for
reliability showed co-efficient omegas above .80, Time Management .868; Social
Competence .896; Achievement Motivation.870; Intellectual Flexibility.825; Task
Leadership .873; Emotional Control .883; Active Initiative .890; Self Confidence .861.
Currently lacking is the demonstration of concurrent validity with measures of other
similar constructs (Neill et al., 2003).
The LEQ (any version) has been used in several published research studies (eg.
Eagle, Gordon, & Lewis, 2002; Neill & Flory, 2000 a; Neill, 1999; Neill, 2000; Neill,
2006; Neill et al., 2003; Stenger, 2001; Terry, 2002). LEQ James Neill gave verbal
permission to use this tool in the evaluation (J. Neill, personal communication, November
8, 2002). The LEQ-I version was used for this study. The LEQ-I added in a 9th
experimental scale, locus of control, consisting of five new items. James Neill informed
the researcher after the data collection that the five new items lacked internal reliability
(i.e., they showed low correlations amongst the items). He recommended that locus of
control data not be used for this study. Part II of the survey (Leadership in School and
Methodology 60
Community) included program generated questions designed to check program
objectives.
LEQ-I Dimension Descriptions and Details for Item Scoring and Questions
Time Management (Items 2. I plan and use my time efficiently, 11. I do not waste
time and 20. I manage the way I use my time well) describes the extent that an individual
perceives that he/she makes optimum use of time. Social Competence (Items 3. I am
successful in social situations, 12. I am competent in social situations, and 21. I
communicate well with people) describes the degree of personal confidence and selfperceived ability in social interactions. Achievement Motivation (Items 4. When working
on a project, I do my best to get the details right, 13. I try to get the best results when I do
things, and 22. I try to do the best that I possibly can) describes the extent the individual
is motivated to achieve excellence and put the required effort into action. Intellectual
Flexibility (Items 5. I change my thinking or opinions easily if there is a better idea, 14. I
am open to new ideas, and 23. I am adaptable and flexible in my thinking and ideas)
describes the extent to which the individual perceives he/she can adapt his/her thinking
and accommodate new information from changing conditions and different perspectives.
Task Leadership (Items 7. I can get people to work for me, 16. I am a good leader when a
task needs to be done, and 25. As a leader I motivate other people when a task needs to
be done) describes the extent to which the individual perceives he/she can lead other
people effectively when a task needs to be done and productivity is the primary
requirement. Emotional Control (Items 8. I can stay calm in stressful situations, 17. I stay
calm and overcome anxiety in new or changing situations, and 26. I stay calm when
things go wrong) describes the extent to which the individual perceives he/she maintains
Methodology 61
emotional control when he/she is faced with potentially stressful situations. Active
Initiative (Items 9. I like to be busy and actively involved in things, 18. I like to be active
and energetic, and 27. I like to be an active, ‘get into it’ person) describes the extent to
which the individual likes to initiate action in new situations. Self Confidence (Items 10. I
know I have the ability to do anything I want to do, 19. When I apply myself to
something I am confident I will succeed, and 28. I believe I can do it) describes the
degree of confidence the individual has in his/her abilities and the success of their
actions. All items are scored in the positive direction (i.e., a high score indicates higher
self-ratings) and a total LEQ score can also be computed as the mean of all eight scales
(Neill, 2002).
Additionally, items were coded directly related to the research questions by three
coders. Leadership included Part I (LEQ) of the survey, Items 5, 6, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 25,
28, 29 and Part II Items 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. Noticing oppression included Part
II (Leadership in School and Community), Items 11, 12, 13, 15. Interventions included
Part I Items 26 and Part II Items 2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. Contributions included
Part I Items 17, 22, 25, 26 and Part II Items 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10. Acts of integrity
included Part I Items 15, 22 and Part II Items 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.
Survey Respondents.
Out of 118 total students, 72 participants completed the surveys, as 36 of the students did
not participate in either day and 11 participants’ data were removed during the data
analysis due to incomplete or inaccurate response information. The teacher of all six
classes administered the pre-survey on March 1, 2004 before the Challenge Day and
Methodology 62
Challenger Program and the post-surveys on May 27, 2004 to all participants 12 weeks
after the program.
Logs.
Participants who took the Challenger program were instructed to use tracking
sheets (logs) developed and provided by Challenge Day to track “Acts of Change”. A
content analysis was conducted to determine the type and extent to which they practiced
safe and effective interventions and contributions after participation in the program.
Log Respondents.
Out of 118 total students, 37 participants completed the logs. Of these, eight
participants’ data were removed during the data analysis due to incomplete or inaccurate
response information. The teacher of all six classes administered the logs to participants
and collected them everyday in three classrooms for the 12 weeks following the program.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted with all participating students comparing pre and
posttest scores, male vs. female responses, and responses by ethnicity, and by grade level.
Descriptive statistics were used to report the distribution of data with respect to the
demographics section of the survey, gender, grade, ethnicity, the number of Acts of
Change in school, and the world outside and past participation in a Challenge Day
program.
Inferential statistics were used to process the quantitative data generated by the
survey. Paired sample t-tests were used to examine and compare means of participants’
pre and post-test scores on the eight Life Effectiveness dimensions. They were also used
examine differences in Leadership, Oppression, Interventions, Contributions and Acts of
Methodology 63
Integrity (Pre-Posttest). Researchers in the field of experiential education recommend
including effect sizes in addition to significance testing in research studies (Gass, Gillis &
Russell, 2007). In the past, traditional research approaches recommended only reporting
effect sizes that were significant. This approach ignores issues of power, so that even if
there is a low power in the results for the study, it is still possible to have sizable effect
sizes that are not significant. Additionally, the current edition (5th) of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychology Association recommends the reporting of effect
sizes in addition to statistical significance to fully understand the importance of research
findings and to provide the reader “with enough information to assess the magnitude of
the observed effect or relationship” (p. 26). Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to
determine small, moderate, or strong effects of the program.
T-tests and ANOVA were used to examine if a relationship exists between the
eight Life effectiveness scales and leadership (Pre-Posttest) with ethnicity, gender, and
grade in school. Data were entered into SPSS version 12.0 for Windows.
Results 64
Chapter IV
Results
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent Challenge Day and its
follow up Challenger Program improved life effectiveness and developed leadership in
high school students. Additionally, it examined the relationship between these constructs
and students’ ethnicity, gender, and grade in school. A secondary goal of this project is to
provide Challenge Day program staff, program beneficiaries, and program sponsors with
information regarding the outcomes of their program activities regarding noticing
oppression and isolation, implementing safe and effective intervention tools, making
contributions, and demonstrating acts of integrity.
Relevant Results Regarding Improved Life Effectiveness and Leadership Development
Research Question 1a
The first research question was to determine to what extent Challenge Day and its
follow up Challenger Program improved a) life effectiveness and developed leadership in
high school students.
Eight dependent sample t tests were used to determine if mean differences existed
between pre-posttest time management, social competence, achievement motivation,
intellectual flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, active initiative, self confidence
and leadership scores. A one-sample Kolmogorov Smirnov (K-S) test was conducted to
see if the sample scores deviate significantly from a normal distribution. This test showed
that the pre-test for active initiative and the post-test for self-confidence were not
normally distributed. However, according to Stevens (2002) large samples (N>50) are
robust to violations of normality.
Results 65
Table 5 gives the results of these analyses, social competence, intellectual
flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, and self confidence (pre-posttest) were
found to be significant. The means and standard deviations for the pretest and posttest are
shown in Table 6 and Figure 1.
Table 5.
Dependent T-Tests and Effect Size for Time Management, Social Competence,
Achievement Motivation, Intellectual Flexibility, Task Leadership, Emotional Control,
Active Initiative, and Self Confidence (Pre-Posttest)
Research variables
t
df
Sig.
d
Pre Time Management – Post Time Management
-1.73
71
.087
.18
Pre Social Competence - Post Social Competence
-2.83
71
Pre Achievement Motivation - Post Achievement Motivation 0.16
71
.874
.02
Pre Intellectual Flexibility - Post Intellectual Flexibility
-2.50
71
.015*
.08
Pre Task Leadership - Post Task Leadership
-2.39
71
.020*
.25
Pre Emotional Control - Post Emotional Control
-2.30
71
.025*
.28
Pre Active Initiative - Post Active Initiative
-0.82
71
.413
.08
Pre Self Confidence - Post Self Confidence
-3.22
71
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
.006** .29
.002** .34
Results 66
Table 6.
Means and Standard Deviations for Time Management, Social Competence, Achievement
Motivation, Intellectual Flexibility, Task Leadership, Emotional Control, Active Initiative,
and Self Confidence (Pre-Posttest)
Research variables
M
SD
Pre Time Management
5.11
1.26
Post Time Management
5.37
1.47
Pre Social Competence
5.57
1.18
Post Social Competence
5.91
1.17
Pre Achievement Motivation
6.61
0.90
Post Achievement Motivation
6.59
0.99
Pre Intellectual Flexibility
6.19
0.87
Post Intellectual Flexibility
6.50
1.07
Pre Task Leadership
5.19
1.51
Post Task Leadership
5.57
1.44
Pre Emotional Control
4.98
1.44
Post Emotional Control
5.40
1.43
Pre Active Initiative
6.08
1.53
Post Active Initiative
6.20
1.53
Pre Self Confidence
6.60
1.07
Post Self Confidence
6.94
0.94
Results 67
7
Post
6.25
Pre
6.75
6.5
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
ce
en
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on
C
e
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iv
Se
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on
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rs
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e
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ad
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Le
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xi
sk
le
n
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io
at
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ot
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Figure 1. Bar graph presenting means LEQ score pre-posttest. Scale begins at 4.0
Results 68
Dependent sample t tests were used to determine if mean differences existed
between pre-post-test Leadership. A one-sample K-S test, showed that Leadership (PrePost-test) was normally distributed. The results indicated that this program did develop
leadership in high school students. This is shown through significance found in task
leadership in the LEQ in Table 5 and leadership in Table 7. Means and standard
deviations show in Table 6 and Figure 1 that post-test task leadership mean was
significantly larger than pre-test task leadership. Means and standard deviations shown in
Table 8 demonstrate that posttest leadership means were larger than pretest leadership.
Table 7.
Dependant T-Tests and Effect Size for Leadership (Pre vs. Posttest)
Pre Leadership – Post Leadership
t
df
Sig.
d
-3.65
71
.001**
.39
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
Table 8.
Means and Standard Deviations Leadership (Pre-Posttest)
Pre M
Post M
Pre SD
Leadership
5.40
5.74
0.84
Post SD
0.94
Results 69
Using effect sizes provided more insight into the increment of change experienced
by the participants. They were used to measure how much change occurred for each
LEQ-I Scale and the Leadership Survey. Effect sizes (see Table 5) were calculated using
Cohen’s d where .2 represents a small effect, .5 represents a moderate effect and .8
represents a strong effect. Wolf (1986) interprets this differently suggesting that .25 is
educationally significant and that .50 is clinically significant. Time management, task
leadership, emotional control, and social competence had small effects and self confidence had small-moderate effects (see Table 5). Leadership shown in Table 7 had
small-moderate effects. Comparisons with specific field benchmarks can be used to
interpret effect sizes. Effect sizes (see Table 9) were compared with a percentage of
average change in outdoor and adventure education programs included in seven metaanalytic studies (Bunting & Donley, 2002; Cason & Gillis, 1994; Hans, 2000; Hattie et
al., 1997; Marsh, 1999; Staunton, 2003; Wilson & Lipsey, 2000). When compared to the
results of other outdoor and adventure education programs (see Table 10). In this study
pre-posttest time management and task leadership were average; social competence,
emotional control, and self-confidence were above average; and the leadership (see Table
11) effect size rating was high.
Results 70
Table 9.
Average Change from Seven Meta-analyses Related to Outdoor/Adventure Programs
(Bunting & Donley, 2002; Cason & Gillis, 1994; Hans, 2000; Hattie et al., 1997; Marsh,
1999; Staunton, 2003; Wilson & Lipsey, 2000).
Effect Size
% of Average Change
Rating
below 0
below 0%
No Change
0 to 0.055
1 - 25%
Doubtful
0.056 to 0.165
26 - 75%
Below Average
0.166 to 0.275
76 - 125%
Average
0.276 to 0.385
126 - 175%
Above Average
0.386 to 0.495
176 - 225%
High
0.496 to 0.605
226 - 275%
Very High
0.606 to 0.715
276 - 325%
Outstanding
0.716 to 0.825
326 - 375%
Very Outstanding
0.826 to 0.935
376 - 425%
Exceptional
above 0.935
above 425%
Very Exceptional
Results 71
Table 10.
LEQ Effect Size of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program Study Comparison to
Average Change for Outdoor/Adventure Programs
Research variables
Effect Size
Rating
Pre/Post Time Management
.18
Average
Pre/Post Social Competence
.29
Above Average
Pre/Post Achievement Motivation
.02
Doubtful
Pre/Post Intellectual Flexibility
.08
Below Average
Pre/Post Task Leadership
.25
Average
Pre/Post Emotional Control
.28
Above Average
Pre/Post Active Initiative
.08
Below Average
Pre/Post Self Confidence
.34
Above Average
Table 11.
Leadership Effect Size of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program Study Comparison to
Average Change for Outdoor Education Programs
Research variables
Pre Leadership – Post Leadership
Effect Size
Rating
0.39
High
Results 72
Fifteen dependent sample t-tests were conducted on Part II (Leadership in School
and Community) of the survey to assess if differences existed on leadership in school and
community (Pre vs. Post). Results of the t-tests revealed that participants had
significantly higher means for, “I stand up for myself” and “I stand up for others,” on the
post-test compared to the pre-test. No other significant mean differences were revealed
(see Table 12). Effect sizes in Table 12 show a small-moderate effect size for “I stand up
for others.” The effect size for “I stand up for myself” at .46 was closer to a moderate
effect.
Results 73
Table 12.
Dependent T-Tests, Means, Standard Deviations, and Effect Sizes on Self-Reported
Leadership in School & Community
Leadership Item
t
df
Sig.
d
Pre M
Pre SD Post M Post SD
Feels part of school
-0.52 71
.605
.08
5.01
1.90
5.17
2.06
Active in improvement
-0.61 71
.544
.20
3.85
2.29
4.29
2.22
Knows how to change
-1.64 71
.105
.21
4.24
2.00
4.69
2.34
Makes positive change
-1.47 71
.147
.25
4.37
2.16
4.92
2.19
Active in leadership
-0.54 70
.592
.26
3.28
2.18
3.54
2.36
Feels part of community
-1.37 70
.175
.22
4.26
2.16
4.76
2.30
Active in improvement
-1.66 69
.101
.29
3.22
2.05
3.85
2.26
Knows how to change
-0.20 69
.842
.19
3.98
2.03
4.37
2.16
Makes positive change
-1.36 69
.179
.27
3.80
2.04
4.38
2.27
Active in leadership
-1.33 69
.187
.25
2.87
2.05
3.40
2.25
Confronts peer comments -1.87 71
.066
.26
5.05
2.20
5.58
1.93
Stand up for self
-3.28 70 .002** .45
6.62
1.85
7.30
1.10
Stops gossip
-1.26 69
.212
.29
4.49
2.07
5.07
1.96
Confronts peer choices
-1.61 69
.111
.30
4.89
2.11
5.55
2.29
Stands up for others
-2.03 71
.046*
.33
5.85
1.71
6.42
1.78
School Leadership
Community Leadership
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01**
Results 74
8
Pre
Post
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15
Figure 2. Bar Graph Presenting Pre-Posttest Mean Scores on Leadership in School &
Community
Note. Scale ranged from 1 = Not Like me to 8 = Like me.
Results 75
Relevant Results Regarding Relationship between Ethnicity, Gender, and Grade
Research Question 1 b
b) It also examined the relationships between life effectiveness and leadership and
students’ ethnicity, gender, and grade in school.
Eighteen independent samples t-tests were conducted to determine if a
relationship existed between participants ethnicity (Latino/a vs. Other) and time
management, social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task
leadership, emotional control, active initiative, self-confidence (shown Table 13 and
Figure 3), and leadership (shown Table 14 and Figure 4) pre to posttest. There was a
significant positive relationship between post self-confidence and ethnicity (Latino vs.
Other).
Results 76
Table 13.
Independent Sampled T-tests, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest LEQ
Scores by Ethnicity
Tvalues
Ethnicity
Other
M
SD
Ethnicity Latino/a
M
SD
Sig.
LEQ Pretest
Time Management
2.12
5.40
1.35
4.79
1.07
.037*
Social Competence
1.22
5.73
1.19
5.39
1.17
.226
Achievement Motivation
.88
6.70
.98
6.51
.80
.380
Intellectual Flexibility
1.98
6.38
.93
5.98
.77
.051
Task Leadership
.90
5.34
1.36
5.02
1.66
.368
Emotional Control
-1.58
4.73
1.54
5.26
1.29
.118
Active Initiative
-.58
5.98
1.65
6.20
1.40
.558
Self Confidence
-1.34
6.44
1.05
6.78
1.07
.184
Time Management
.12
5.39
1.57
5.34
1.37
.901
Social Competence
-.34
5.86
1.23
5.96
1.10
.730
Achievement Motivation
-1.90
6.38
1.10
6.82
.80
.061
Intellectual Flexibility
.64
6.57
1.10
6.41
1.04
.524
Task Leadership
-.44
5.50
1.38
5.65
1.53
.659
Emotional Control
-1.39
5.18
1.42
5.64
1.42
.168
Active Initiative
-1.00
6.03
1.74
6.39
1.26
.321
Self Confidence
-2.02
6.74
1.00
7.18
.82
.047*
LEQ Posttest
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
Results 77
7.5
7.25
Other
6.5
Latino/a
7
6.75
6.25
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
ce
en
fid
on ce
C
n
lf
de
e
Se nfi
st Co ativ
Po elf niti
I
S
e
e
ve iv
Pr cti itat rol
t
A
n
st e I
on
Po tiv l C rol
Ac ona ont
e
ti
Pr mo al C ip
E ion rsh
e
e
t
o
Pr
ad p
y
Em e hi
e sk L ers bilit
i
Pr
Ta ead lex
st
L l F ity
Po sk ua ibil on
Ta lect lex ati
e
l
iv
F
ot
Pr nte al
I
M ion
u
st lect ent vat
l
ti
Po
e
m
t
o
In eve t M e
e
i
c
n
Pr ch me ten
A
st eve pe e
Po hi
om nc
Ac l C te
e
ia
pe nt
e
Pr oc om
m
S
st al C age t
n en
Po ci
a
So M em
e
e
g
Pr im na
T
a
M
st
Po ime
T
e
Pr
Figure 3. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Ethnicity
Results 78
Table 14.
Independent Sampled T-tests, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
Leadership by Ethnicity
Ethnicity: Other
Ethnicity: Latino/a
T-values
M
SD
M
SD
Sig.
Pre Leadership
.12
5.41
.82
5.39
.87
.906
Post Leadership
-.20
5.74
1.02
5.78
.86
.837
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
7.5
7.25
Latino/a
7
6.75
Other
6.5
6.25
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
Pre Leadership
Post Leadership
Figure 4. Bar Graph Presenting Mean on Pre-posttest Leadership Scores by Ethnicity
Results 79
Eighteen independent samples t-tests were conducted to determine if a
relationship existed between participants with gender (Male vs. Female) and time
management, social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task
leadership, emotional control, active initiative, self-confidence (shown Table 15 and
Figure 5), and leadership (shown Table 16 and Figure 6) pre to posttest. No significant
positive relationship was revealed for life effectiveness and leadership with gender (Male
vs. Female).
Results 80
Table 15.
Independent Sampled T-tests, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest LEQ
Scores by Gender
Tvalues
Male
M SD
Female
M SD
Sig. (2tailed)
LEQ Pretest
Time Management
-.16
5.08 1.28 5.13 1.25
.873
Social Competence
-1.48
5.31 1.33 5.73 1.06
.142
Achievement Motivation
1.02
6.74
.99
6.52
.84
.312
Intellectual Flexibility
-.85
6.08
.82
6.26
.91
.398
Task Leadership
-.80
5.01 1.58 5.30 1.47
.427
Emotional Control
1.16
5.23 1.27 4.83 1.53
.246
Active Initiative
.31
6.15 1.37 6.04 1.64
.755
Self Confidence
.96
6.75 1.17 6.50 1.00
.336
Time Management
1.10
5.61 1.60 5.21 1.39
.271
Social Competence
-.37
5.85 1.14 5.95 1.19
.710
Achievement Motivation
-.44
6.52 1.11 6.63
.91
.664
Intellectual Flexibility
1.26
6.70 1.08 6.37 1.06
.212
Task Leadership
.22
5.62 1.68 5.54 1.29
.827
Emotional Control
1.58
5.73 1.19 5.19 1.54
.118
Active Initiative
.94
6.41 1.55 6.06 1.52
.348
Self Confidence
1.44
7.14
.155
LEQ Posttest
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
.92
6.82
.94
Results 81
7.5
7.25
6.25
Female
6.5
Male
7
6.75
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
ce
en
f id
on ce
C
lf
en
Se nfid e
o
st
t iv
Po lf C itia
In e
Se
e
e
v
Pr ctiv iati
l
it
A
ro
In ont
st
Po tive l c l
a
Ac ion ntro
e
ot Co
Pr
Em nal hip
st
io ers
Po ot
d
Em Lea hip
e
y
s
Pr ask der bilit
T
xi
a
st
Le Fle ty
Po sk
al
ili
Ta ctu xib ion
e
le Fle vat
i
Pr tel
l
ot n
In
ua
st
ct nt M tio
a
e
Po telle
iv
em ot
In
e
ev t M e
hi
n
Pr
c
Ac me ten
st
ve pe
Po hie om ce
A c l C te n
e
a
e
p
ci
Pr
nt
So om me
st
e
lC
Po cia nag nt
So M a m e
e
ge
Pr me
Ti ana
st
M
Po me
Ti
e
Pr
Figure 5. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Gender
Results 82
Table 16.
Independent Sampled T-tests, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
Leadership by Gender
Male
Female
T-values
M
SD
M
SD Sig. (2-tailed)
Pre Leadership
-.86
5.29
.85
5.47 .83
.392
Post Leadership
-1.07
5.61 1.03 5.85 .89
.289
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
7.5
7.25
7
Male
6.75
Female
6.5
6.25
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
Pre Leadership
Post Leadership
Figure 6. Bar Graph Presenting Pre-Posttest Leadership Mean Scores by Gender
Results 83
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine if a relationship
exists between participants grade in school time management, social competence,
achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, active
initiative, self-confidence, (shown Table 17 and Figure 7) and leadership (shown Table
18 and Figure 8) pre-to-posttest. A Scheffe’s post-hoc test revealed that the 10th grade
was significantly higher than the 9th Grade on pre-task leadership scores. A Scheffe’s
post-hoc test revealed that the 10th grade was significantly higher than the 12th on preleadership scores. There was no significant positive relationship found in post-test results.
Results 84
Table 17.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Post-test LEQ
Scores by Grade
LEQ Pretest
Time
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
M
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Sig.
Fvalues
1.29
SD
4.79 1.05
5.34
1.44
5.43
1.08
4.85
1.81
.284
1.26
5.35 1.12
6.09
.97
5.53
1.30
5.59
1.35
.293
.61
6.65
.87
6.84
.80
6.52
.96
6.37
1.06
.610
1.02
5.94
.79
6.20
.87
6.38
.88
6.26
1.10
.391
4.51
4.64 1.50
6.04
1.38
5.52
1.23
4.37
1.59 .006**
1.62
5.12 1.37
5.31
1.27
4.98
1.47
4.04
1.80
.192
2.26
6.09 1.13
6.60
1.42
6.16
1.73
4.96
1.98
.089
1.38
6.48 1.24
7.04
.83
6.52
1.04
6.22
.94
.257
Management
Social
Competence
Achievement
Motivation
Intellectual
Flexibility
Task
Leadership
Emotional
Control
Active
Initiative
Self
Confidence
Results 85
Table 17 (cont.).
LEQ Posttest
Time
1.06
5.03 1.67
5.64
1.29
5.71
1.24
5.15
1.73
.372
.21
5.89 1.23
6.13
.86
5.97
1.23
5.78
1.32
.887
.46
6.51
.94
6.87
1.06
6.67
1.01
6.56
.73
.706
.46
6.49 1.21
6.44
1.06
6.64
1.07
6.13
.78
.712
1.86
5.31 1.62
6.11
1.17
5.75
1.50
4.85
1.02
.145
2.00
5.25 1.32
5.88
1.29
5.49
1.50
4.48
1.47
.122
2.53
6.31 1.44
6.44
1.40
6.44
1.67
4.93
1.40
.065
2.22
6.99
7.07
1.02
7.03
.86
6.19
.96
.094
Management
Social
Competence
Achievement
Motivation
Intellectual
Flexibility
Task
Leadership
Emotional
Control
Active
Initiative
SelfConfidence
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
.87
Results 86
7.5
7.25
7
9
10
11
12
6.75
6.5
6.25
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
Pr
e
Po Pr Po Pr Po Pr Po Pr Po Pr Po Pr Po Pr Po
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Ti st T So st S Ac st A In st I Ta st T Em st E Ac st A Se st S
n
m
t
s
l
e ime cia oci hie chi elle tell k L ask oti mo tive ctiv f C elf
on C
M
v e ev
l C al
ec e
on tio
e
c
L
M
I
t
an
om Co me em ua tu ade ea al na niti Ini fid onf
a
n
a
ag
ti
id
a
d
e
l
m
C
e l
em age pet pe nt M nt Fle l Fl rsh ers on Co tive ativ nce en
e
i
ce
n
x
h
M
e
e
p
t
m
t
o
e
en
n
ip rol tro
o ib x
t ent ce nce tiva tiv ility ibili
l
ty
tio at
n ion
Figure 7. Bar Graph Presenting Means Pre-Posttest LEQ Scores by Grade
Results 87
Table 18.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA, Means, and Standard Deviations on Pre-Posttest
Leadership Scores by Grade
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
F-values
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Sig.
.01
5.18
.83
5.86
.74
5.59
.78
4.76
.70
.001**
.04
5.82
.98
5.71
1.10
5.97
.84
5.23
.71
.264
Pre
Leadership
Post
Leadership
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
7.5
7.25
9
10
11
12
7
6.75
6.5
6.25
6
5.75
5.5
5.25
5
4.75
4.5
4.25
4
Pre Leadership
Post Leadership
Figure 8. Bar Graph Presenting Pre-Post-test Leadership Mean Scores by Grade
Results 88
Relevant Results Regarding Practice Skills in Noticing Oppression and Isolation, Making
Contributions, and Demonstrating Acts of Integrity
The secondary research question was to assess to what extent high school students
(who have participated in Challenge Day and undergone its follow-up Challenger
Program) practice skills in a) noticing oppression and isolation, b) practicing safe and
effective intervention tools, c) making contributions, and (d) demonstrating acts of
integrity.
Four dependant sample t tests were used to determine if mean differences existed
for oppression, interventions, contributions, and acts of integrity (Pre-Posttest). A onesample K-S test showed that oppression, interventions, contributions, and acts of integrity
(Pre-Posttest) were normally distributed. As indicated, Table 19 shows that oppression,
interventions, contributions, and acts of integrity (Pre-Posttest) were all found to be
significant. The means and standard deviations are shown in Table 20 pre to posttest.
Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d where .2 represents a small effect, .5
represents a moderate effect, and .8 represents a strong effect. Contributions and acts of
integrity had small effects. Oppression and interventions revealed small-moderate effects
(see Figure 19).
Results 89
Table 19.
Dependent T-Tests and Effect Size for Oppression, Intervention,
Contributions & Integrity (Pre-Posttest)
Pre Oppression – Post Oppression
t
-2.57
df
71
Sig.
.012*
d
.36
Pre Intervention – Post Intervention
-3.08
71
.003**
.37
Pre Contributions – Post Contribution
-2.43
71
.018*
.26
Pre Integrity – Post Integrity
-5.02
71
.001**
.30
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01
Table 20.
Means and Standard Deviations Oppression, Intervention, Contributions and
Integrity (Pre-Posttest)
Pre M
Post M
Pre SD
Post SD
Oppression
5.55
6.03
1.40
1.26
Intervention
4.55
4.99
1.16
1.22
Contributions
4.38
4.73
1.21
1.37
Integrity
5.71
6.21
0.79
0.84
Results 90
The analysis of the logs (Table 21), showed participants practicing intervention
skills less then 3% of the time. Means and standard deviations were calculated for the
each week of Acts of Change in School and in the World for Period 3 (see Table 22),
Period 4 (see Table 23), and Period 5 (see Table 24). Figure 9 presents a bar graph with
the mean number of acts of change in school by period (3 vs. 4 vs. 5). Figure 10 presents
a bar graph with the mean number of acts of change in the world by period (3 vs. 4 vs. 5).
The log data in Tables 22, 23, 24, Figure 9 and Figure 10 compared the acts of
change in the school and the outside world for three class periods (3, 4 and 5) over a
three-month period. Figure 10 showed significantly more acts of change in the outside
world than in school. The survey part II was able to document changes participants made
in school. Both Figure 9 and Figure 10 also showed a decrease in the documentation of
acts of changes as the weeks after the intervention increase to 12 weeks. Additionally, the
results indicated that this program did demonstrate that participants made contributions.
This is shown in Table 21 as the top five ranked acts of change participants recorded in
their logs as acts of change that were contributions (helping others, helping peers,
connected with peers, hugs, and community service).
Results 91
Table 21.
Ranks for Act of Change
Act of Change
Total Number
Helped family
351
22.0%
1
Helped peers
271
17.0%
2
Connected/Reached out to peers
178
11.2%
3
Gave hugs/expressed love
132
8.3%
4
Participated in community service
115
7.2%
5
Helped Strangers
89
6.6%
6
Resolved conflict
104
6.5%
7
Took care of self
96
6.0%
8
Connected/Reached out to family
59
3.7%
9
Helped adults (not family)
41
3.0%
10
Connected to someone new
44
2.8%
11
Showed gratitude
32
2.0%
12
Changed oppression-situations
20
1.3%
13
Performed acts of integrity
19
1.2%
14
Reached out to adults
14
0.9%
15
Sent email to Challenge Day
8
0.5%
16
Connected with others
8
0.5%
17
Demonstrated positive attitude
7
0.4%
18
Refrained from drugs and alcohol
5
0.3%
19
Total Number of Acts of Change
1593
Percentage
Rank
Results 92
Table 22.
Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 3 over 12 Weeks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Minimum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
M
1.1 0.3 .3
.3
.1
.3
.1
.1
0
.3
.3
.3
SD
0.9 0.5 .5
.5
.4
.5
.4
.4
0
.5
.5
.5
Minimum
4
3
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
17
14
7
7
8
7
8
8
9
7
7
7
M
9.3 7.9 5.3 4.1 3.1 4.1 3.3 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.1 1.4
SD
4.5 3.3 1.7 2.6 3.3 2.3 3.6 3.0 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.7
Changes in School
Changes in World
Note. Seven logs were collected.
Results 93
Table 23.
Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 4 over 12 Weeks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Minimum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
3
4
1
1
0
2.0 3
1
4
2
2
2
M
0.7 0.7 0.2 0.3 0
0.4 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.8
SD
1.1 1.2 0.4 0.5 0
0.7 0.9 0.3 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.6
Minimum
5
2
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Maximum
11
11
11
22
8
7
16
16
24
7
9
8
M
7.5 6.4 5.9 7.2 5.5 5.0 5.8 5.3 6.8 3.5 3.5 1.8
SD
1.9 2.1 2.9 5.0 2.4 2.7 4.2 4.4 5.8 3.1 3.2 2.9
Changes in School
Changes in World
Note. Twelve logs were collected.
Results 94
Table 24.
Descriptive Statistics on Acts of Change in School and World for Period 5 over 12 Weeks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Minimum
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
M
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
SD
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Changes in School
Changes in World
Minimum
1
4
3
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
11
10
8
7
7
7
7
11
8
7
7
5
M
7.1 6.5 5.9 5.5 3.3 3.9 3.8 3.4 3.3 2.6 1.5 0.6
SD
2.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.9 3.4 3.2 2.5 1.6
Note. Ten logs were collected.
Results 95
Mean Acts of Change
1.5
Period 3
Period 4
Period 5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Weeks
Figure 9. Bar Graph presenting the Mean School Acts of Change for Periods 3-5.
10
Period 3
Period 4
Period 5
Mean Acts of Change
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Weeks
Figure 10. Bar Graph presenting the Mean World Acts of Change for Period 3-5.
Results 96
Summary of Study Results
In summary, all data collected were analyzed to provide a multi-method approach
to strengthen the validity of the study findings. To answer two research questions this
study used an outcome-based program evaluation with a pre-posttest design, which
included the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), developed by James Neill (Neill, et
al., 2003), additional leadership items, program generated questions, and a content
analysis of self-reflection logs completed by students participating in the follow up
Challenger Program.
The results of the study indicated that Challenge Day and its follow-up Challenger
Program did improve life effectiveness as five of the eight LEQ factors: social
competence, intellectual flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, and selfconfidence (Pre-Posttest) were found to be statistically significant. Additionally, the
results indicate that this program did develop leadership in high school students. This is
shown through significance found in task leadership in the life effectiveness measure and
the leadership measure.
There was not a significant positive relationship found between students’ gender,
and grade in school in relationship to life effectiveness and leadership. There was a
significant positive relationship between post self-confidence and ethnicity (Latino vs.
Other).
The results of the study indicated that Challenge Day in conjunction with its
follow-up Challenger Program did increase skills in noticing oppression and isolation.
The results also indicated that this program did provide participants opportunities to
Results 97
practice safe and effective intervention tools. The study found that there was a significant
increase in participants standing up for themselves and for others.
The log data showed participants documented more acts of change in the world
than in school. There was also a decrease in the documentation of acts of change as the
weeks after the intervention increased to 12 weeks. Additionally, the results from log data
indicated that this program did demonstrate that participants made contributions. The top
five ranked acts of change that participants recorded in their logs were contributions
(helping others, helping peers, connected with peers, hugs, and community service).
Summary and Discussion 98
Chapter V
Summary and Discussion
Introduction and Overview
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent Challenge Day and its
follow up Challenger Program improved life effectiveness and developed leadership in
high school students. Additionally, it examined the relationship between these constructs
and students’ ethnicity, gender, and grade in school. Furthermore, this project provided
Challenge Day program staff, beneficiaries, and sponsors with evaluative information
regarding the outcomes of their program activities.
This study was an outcome-based program evaluation with a pre-posttest design,
which included the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ), developed by James Neill
(Neill et al., 2003), additional leadership items, program generated questions, and a
content analysis of self-reflection logs completed by students participating in the follow
up Challenger Program. All student program effects were evaluated using data from
surveys administered by the teacher prior to the program intervention and three months
after the intervention. Additional data from three months of journals/logs recording daily
“acts of change” following the Challenger Program were used from three classes.
The results of the study revealed that Challenge Day and its follow-up Challenger
Program did improve life effectiveness. Five of the eight LEQ factors were significant.
The most significant increase was found in the areas of self confidence (p=.002) and
social competence (p=.006). Additional changes found included intellectual flexibility
(p=.015), task leadership (p=.020), and emotional control (p=.025). Regarding leadership
specifically, results indicated that this program did develop leadership in high school
Summary and Discussion 99
students through significance found in task leadership (p=.020) in the LEQ and additional
leadership items on the survey (p=.001).
The effect size (increments of change) in the LEQ and additional leadership items
section of the survey from pre to posttest from highest to lowest for factors that were
statistically significant: leadership (.39), self confidence (.34), social competence (.29),
emotional control (.28), task leadership (.25), and intellectual flexibility (.08). Key
researchers in the field of experiential education recommend including effect sizes in
addition to significance testing in research studies (Gass, Gillis & Russell, 2007). The
effect sizes for the following items that where not found statistically significant: time
management (.18), active initiative (.08), and achievement motivation (.02). Consider
Priest’s (1990) definition of adventure education as “two relationships, intrapersonal
(self-concept), and interpersonal (relationships with others). Change takes place when
individuals and groups participate in challenging problem-solving activities that may
support them to grow and learn to overcome limits that are often self-imposed” (p. 114).
When compared with average change (see Table 25) in outdoor and adventure education
programs (Neill, 2002), the effect sizes for leadership rated high. The effect sizes for selfconfidence, social competence, and emotional control rated above average. The effect
sizes for time management and task leadership rated average.
The effect size findings for this two day program were even more extraordinary
due to the fact that that they are being compared with programs that range from two to
fifty-six days with an average program length of three weeks. Research studies (Cason &
Gillis, 1994; Hattie et al., 1997) showed a small positive relationship between program
length and outcomes. For adolescents, there was a strong relationship between program
Summary and Discussion 100
length and outcomes with an effect size of .33 (n=405) for nine to ten day school
programs and a much lower effect size of .08 (n=129) for two to eight day programs.
Follow up effect size findings ranged from immediately after the program to up to five
months post intervention.
The scope of these studies covered a range of program effects. The Hattie et al.
(1997) review, focused on adolescents and includes many of the studies of the Carson
and Gillis (1994), therefore the results are similar. The Cason and Gillis (1994) study
focused on seven outcome categories, including self-concept (See Table 26). The Hattie
et al. (1997) study is the most widely utilized study in adventure education and reports
outcomes in these areas: leadership, self-concept, academic, personality, interpersonal,
and adventuresome (see Table 27).
Follow up effect sizes that compare leadership, self-concept, and interpersonal
relationship outcomes with similar Challenge Day outcomes reveal higher follow up
effect size results than programs in these studies. The studies by Hans (2000) and
Staunton (2003) focused on adventure therapy programming. The Wilson and Lipsey
(2000) study focused on wilderness programs for youth at risk. Bunting and Donley’s
(2002) study focused on the team development and self-development effects of ropes
challenge courses.
This study found there was not a significant positive relationship found between
students’ gender, and grade in school in relationship to life effectiveness and leadership.
There was a significant positive relationship between post self-confidence and ethnicity
(Latino vs. Other).
Summary and Discussion 101
Additionally, the results of the study indicated that Challenge Day and its followup Challenger Program did increase skills in noticing oppression and isolation; practicing
safe and effective intervention tools; contributions, and demonstrating acts of integrity.
The study also found that there was a significant increase in participants standing up for
themselves and for others.
Summary and Discussion 102
Table 25.
Overall Results from Seven Meta-Analyses of Outdoor/Adventure Education (adapted
and updated from Table 1 in Neill, 2002)
Study
Focus
d
Studies (n)
Effects (n)
Participants (n)
Bunting &
Ropes Challenge
.55
15
na
na
Donley (2002)
Courses
Cason & Gillis
Adolescents
.31
43
147
7,030
Hattie et al.
Outward Bound
.34
96
1,728
12,057
(1997)
Programs
Hans (2000)
Locus of Control
.38
24
30
1,632
Marsh
Camping
.20
22
37
na
.42
17
95
1,000
.18
28
60
3,000
(1994)
(1999)
Staunton (2003) Adventure
Therapy
Wilson &
Delinquent
Lipsey (2000)
Youth
Summary and Discussion 103
Table 26.
Effect sizes (ES) by Outcome Category (reported by Cason and Gillis, 1994)
Category
Behavioral assessment by others
Program ES (N)
.40 (23)
Self-concept
.34 (23)
Academic
.61 (10)
Attitude surveys
.46 (19)
Locus of control
.30 (13)
Clinical scales
1.05 (12)
School attendance
.47 (9)
Summary and Discussion 104
Table 27.
Effect sizes (ES) by Outcome Category (reported by Hattie et al., 1997)
Category
Description
Program
ES (N)
Follow-up
ES (N)
Leadership
Conscientiousness, Decision Making,
.38* (222)
.15 (58)
.28* (271)
.23* (149)
.46* (30)
.21 (9)
.37* (235)
.14 (76)
.32* (176)
.17 (36)
.38* (69)
-.06 (19)
Leadership, Organizational Ability,
Time Management, Values, Goals
Self-concept
Physical Ability, Peer Relations,
General, Academic, Confidence, SelfEfficacy, Family, Self-Understanding,
Well-Being, Independence
Academic
Mathematics, Reading, Grade Point
Average, Problem Solving
Personality
Femininity/Masculinity, Achievement
Motivation, Emotional Stability,
Aggression, Assertiveness, Locus of
Control, Maturity, Neurosis Reduction
Interpersonal
Cooperation, Interpersonal
Communication, Social Competence,
Behavior, Relating Skills, Recidivism
Adventuresome
Challengeness, Flexibility, Physical
Fitness, Environmental Awareness
Note. * p < .05
Summary and Discussion 105
Unanticipated Results
Interestingly, participants documented (in the self-reflection logs) more acts of
change in the outside world than in school. There was also a decrease in the
documentation of acts of change as the weeks after the intervention increase to 12 weeks.
The log results indicated that this program did demonstrate that participants made
contributions. The top five ranked acts of change that participants recorded in their acts
of change logs were contributions (helping family, helping peers, being connected with
peers, hugs, and community service). The logs were effective in collecting data that
might normally not have been collected in the survey. Log rankings revealed the number
one category as being helping family. There were many strategies mentioned mostly for
ways students can share acts of change at school. This was also an interesting finding
because adolescents’ family relationships begin to change as the desire for increased
autonomy and emotional distance shift to a more intense focus on social interactions and
friendships (Steinberg, 1999).
Limitations
The following are some of the identified limitations of this study. A primary
difficulty was generalizing the results of this individual program to groups with different
ethnic composition, socio-economic status, and other demographics characteristics many
of which were unknown. Additionally, a convenience sample was used and the sample
size was small. The evaluation took place in only once instance of the program with one
set of leaders at one school site. Furthermore, the amount of log data was limited as well
as relying primarily on participant global self-report data.
Summary and Discussion 106
Implications for Future Research
Although this study found no significant difference in gender and LEQ results
(Neill, 1999), this may not necessarily indicate that differences are not present in
participants of diverse ethnicity or gender. Roberts (1996) proposes this may be due to
the lack of research of these populations in experiential education. Although studies of
girls and women are increasing, there is a need for additional research focused on other
minority populations. Additionally, research using measures for the Developmental
Assets and empathy scales would contribute significantly to the fields of positive youth
development and experiential education.
Replication of this study in more schools, the use of control groups and
continuing to use multiple measures will add to the consistency of data collection. A
longitudinal study with qualitative research methods would contribute to a foundation of
empirical evidence that would assist Challenge Day and programs like this in securing
future funding and support for the expansion of their programs. Future research and
evaluations of the Challenge Day and Challenger Program are dependent on the support
and investment of school administrators, teachers, stakeholders, and beneficiaries after
Challenge Day Leaders leave.
Conclusion
This is the first doctoral level research study of this nationally renowned program
that showed significant effects of this experiential two-day program. This study provided
empirical evidence that will help provide support for the organization (which has already
served over 300,000 youth) in their goal of “serving one million youth” (Challenge Day,
2003a). This study demonstrated that the Challenge Day and Challenger Program
Summary and Discussion 107
successfully contributed to the acquisition and development of life effectiveness and
leadership skills for participants. James Neill states, “The notion of ‘life effectiveness’ is
that there are some personal skills that are important factors in how effective a person
will be in achieving his/her desires/wishes in life”
(http:wildercom/tools/leq/LEQWhatIsLifeEffectiveness.html, 2006). Participation in the
Challenge Day and Challenger program supported resiliency and positive youth
development by providing an effective curriculum. The curriculum focused on increasing
the presence of protective factors that support the healthy development of young people
in the areas of: overcoming adversity, success at school, interpersonal competence,
experiencing a sense of belonging to a community where youth feel cared for, respected,
and given positive attention (Brendito & Larson, 2004; Lafferty et al., 2003).
Additionally, research in social and emotional learning theory and emotional
intelligence studies confirm that programs effective in helping young people in
developing social competence and developing caring relationships serve as a foundation
for learning. Furthermore, these programs do support students to improve academic
performance (Elias et al., 2003; Goleman, 1995.) Kolb (1984) describes: “Experiential
learning is not just ‘fieldwork’ or ‘praxis’, the connecting of learning to real life
situations, although it is the basis for these approaches, it is a theory that defines the
cognitive processes of learning. In particular, it asserts the importance of critical
reflection in learning” (p.7). Experiential learning provides participants a direct
experience of opportunities to build confidence, cooperation, teamwork, creativity, trust;
as well as develop skills in decision making, problem solving, conflict resolution and
giving and receiving feedback (Kolb, 1984).
Summary and Discussion 108
Research in experiential and adventure education present evidence that programs
that provide the elements of ‘support’ and ‘challenge” contribute to program effects
(Hattie et al. 1997). Challenge Day and Challenger Program Leaders provided an
opportunity for participants to create this safe supportive environment together and then
challenged these young people to “take their position as positive leaders of change” and
inspired them to “Be the Change.”
References 109
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Appendix A 121
Informed Consent Form for Research with Human Subjects
Date:
The purpose of this study is (1) to determine to what extent Challenge Day-Challenger Program improves
life effectiveness and develops leadership in high school students and (2) to assess to what extent high
school students (who have participated in Challenge Day and undergone it’s follow-up Challenger
Program) practice skills in a) noticing oppression and isolation, b) practicing safe and effective
intervention tools and (c) demonstrating acts of integrity.
Dear Research Participant:
I am conducting a study of Challenge Day-Challenger programs effect on personal and leadership
development of high school students as part of my Ph D. program in the field of Leadership at the
Graduate School of Union Institute & University. Information about this research will increase our
understanding of students’ experience of the Challenge Day-Challenger program and if it does make a
positive difference in students’ lives and leadership development. Your participation in this study will
help provide information to people who make decisions about funding future Challenge Day programs in
your school.
During this research study you will be asked to fill out a survey at several different times and a possible
interview at a later date. Your involvement will require approximately 15-20 minutes when you fill out
the survey. You will be provided with time during the school day. If you would like the results of the
study please contact me. After the study is completed, upon your request I will mail you a summary of my
findings and implications of the results.
I am not aware of any risks involved in participation of this project. In fact, it could be an enjoyable
experience for you. All of your responses will be confidential, and your name will not be used in any
report regarding this research. You are free to decline to participate or to withdraw at any time.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at 831-601-6952. Please leave me a
message if I am not immediately available. Thank you.
Sincerely,
Terry Nail
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I ____________________________________, consent to take part in this study conducted by Terry Nail,
Challenge Day and Daly City High School. I understand this study will determine the impact Challenge
Day has on personal and leadership development of Daly City High School Students, I also understand
that I may refuse to participate or withdraw from this study at any time. I understand that all responses
will be confidential. I understand that I may direct questions about this project to Terry Nail.
__________________________________
Participant Signature
_________________
Date
I have read the contents of this consent form and give permission for my child to participate in this study.
__________________________________
Signature of Parent/Guardian
_________________
Date
Appendix B 122
Challenge Day
May 30, 2003
Ms. Terry Nail
P.O. Box 8181
San Jose, CA 95155
Re: Evaluation of Challenger Programs
Dear Terry:
This is in response to your request to collect and evaluate data about the outcomes of a Challenger program
for the purpose of your doctoral thesis. We would be happy to assist you in collecting the data you require, as
well as providing whatever background information you may need to establish an effective context for your
work.
Of course, we will expect to have complete access to the results of your study. In fact, we're very excited
that you're doing this study. Although our program really cries out for formal evaluation, and so many people
have asked for it, we have not had the funds to hire an assessment firm, or to create a system for regular
internal evaluation. You've said you are willing to share your methodology with us, and help us implement it
into an ongoing program that we can use even after your thesis is complete, and we are extremely grateful.
We have contacted some of our client schools about participating in your study, and have received
enthusiastic responses from them. There should be no problem getting the pre and post data on the
students, or the interviews with teachers, administrators and parents.
Please let us know if there's any other way we can support you in your project
3237 Alhambra Ave., Suite 2,
Martinez CA
94553
. Phane/925.957-0234 . Fax/925.957-9425 . affice@challengeday.arg
Appendix C 123
BEFORE YOU START THE SURVEY PLEASE READ OVER THESE
INSTRUCTIONS
This a chance for you to consider how you think and feel about yourself in some ways. This is not a test- there
are no right or wrong answers, and everyone will have different responses. It is important that you give your
own views and that you be honest in you answers and do not talk to others while you think about your answers.
They will be used only for research purposes and in no way will be used to refer to you as an individual at
anytime.
On the survey there are a number of statements that are more or less true (that is like you) or more or less false.
(unlike you). Please use the eight point scale to indicate how true (like you) or more or less false (unlike you).,
each statement is a description of you. Answer the statements as you feel now, even if you have felt
differently at some other time in your life. Please do not leave any of the statements blank.
FALSE
NOT LIKE ME
1
2
This statement
doesn’t describe me at
all; it isn’t like me at all
3
4
More false
than true
5
6
More true
than false
TRUE
LIKE ME
7
8
This statement
describes me very well;
it is very much like me.
SOME EXAMPLES
A. I am a fast thinker.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(The 6 has been circled because the person answering believes the statement “I am a fast thinker” is
sometimes true. That is, the statement is sometimes like him/her.).
B. I am a good storyteller.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(The 2 has been circled because the person answering believes the statement is mostly false as far he/she
is concerned. That is he/feels he/she does not tell good stories.)
C I enjoy working on puzzles.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(The 8 has been circled because the person really enjoys working on puzzles a great deal, therefore the
statement is definitely true about him/her.)
**ARE YOU SURE WHAT TO DO?**
If yes, then please turn to the survey, fill in the information at the top of the survey along with today’s date and
circle your answers for all statements.
If still unsure about what to do, ASK FOR HELP.
*PLEASE GIVE HONEST, PRIVATE ANSWERS*
Appendix C 124
Challenge Day Program Evaluation Survey
School: ______________________________ Student # ID: ___________________
Date: ___/___/___
(No Names please!)
I. LIFE EFFECTIVENESS
STATEMENT
FALSE
not like me
TRUE
like me
01. If I try hard enough, I can succeed at anything.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
02. I plan and use my time efficiently.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
03. I am successful in social situations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
04. When working on a project, I do my best to get the details right.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
05. I change my thinking or opinions easily if there is a better idea.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------06. I am in control of things that happen to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
07. I can get people to work for me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
08. I can stay calm in stressful situations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
09. I like to be busy and actively involved in things.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10. I know I have the ability to do anything I want to do.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. I do not waste time.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12. I am competent in social situations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
13. I try to get the best results when I do things.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
14. I am open to new ideas.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15. I believe I am responsible for all of my actions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16. I am a good leader when a task needs to be done.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
17. I stay calm and overcome anxiety in new or changing situations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
18. I like to be active and energetic.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
19. When I apply myself to something I am confident I will succeed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
20. I manage the way I use my time well.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21. I communicate well with people.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
22. I try to do the best that I possibly can.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
23. I am adaptable and flexible in my thinking and ideas.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
24. I don’t believe in chance destiny or fate.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
25. As a leader I motivate other people well when tasks need to be done.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26. I stay calm when things go wrong.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
27. I like to be an active, ‘get into it’ person.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
28. I believe I can do it.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
29. I can change the way I think and behave.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 This section of the material is protected by copyright and used with the permission of James Neil .
Appendix C 125
II. LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
STATEMENT
FALSE
TRUE
not like me
like me
01. I feel a part of my school.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
02. I am actively involved in school improvement efforts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
03. I know how to make positive changes in my school.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
04. I feel I am able to make a difference in my school.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
05. I am actively involved in school leadership activities.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------06. I feel a part of my community.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
07. I am actively involved in community improvement efforts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
08. I know how to make positive changes in my community.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
09. I feel I am able to make a difference in my community.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10. I am actively involved in community leadership activities.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. I confront peers who are making hurtful comments.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12. I stand up for myself.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
13. I stop gossip when I hear it.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
14. I confront peers who are making poor choices.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15. I stand up for others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How many Challenge Days have you done? #______
Glossary of Terms:
Competent: Having an adequate ability or qualities : FIT <a competent teacher> <a competent piece of work>
Ex: “I am competent at playing basketball.
“I am not competent at playing golf.”
III.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
01. Age: _______
02. Grade in school: _______
03. Gender: ____ Male _____Female
04. Ethnicity (check one or more)
_____African-American/African/Caribbean
_____Latina (o)/Hispanic /Chicano
_____Asian/Asian-American
_____Pacific Islander
_____Native American
_____Mixed Ethnicity
_____Euro/Caucasian
_____Other: Please describe:______________
Thank you for Participating!
Terry Nail, Doctoral Student from The Union Institute & University and Program Evaluator for Challenge Day.
Appendix D 126
Challenger Program
Student Handbook
“In the end, we will not remember the words of
our enemies, but the silence of our friends.”
-Martin Luther King, Jr.
Appendix D 127
Challenger Handbook – Table of Contents
1
CHALLENGER CONGRATULATIONS..............................................................1
NOTICE
2
3
4
5
6
7
DROPPING THE WATERLINE...........................................................................2
DROPPING THE WATERLINE, JOURNAL PAGE...............................................3
YOU CAN BE THE CHANGE!..........................................................................4
CHALLENGE DAY FORMULA FOR CHANGE.................................................5
COMMON FORMS OF SEPARATION AND VIOLENCE IN SCHOOL.............6
THE PROBLEMS ARE REAL!...............................................................................7
CHOOSE
8 “BEING THE CHANGE”...................................................................................9
9 “I” VS. “YOU” MESSAGES............................................................................14
10 CHALLENGE DAY FEELING WORDS.............................................................15
More Tools for Communication.......................................................................16
11 RELATIONSHIP INVENTORY..........................................................................17
12 CHALLENGE DAY RUMOR ELIMINATION MODEL.......................................18
ACT
13
14
15
16
CHALLENGER SCENARIOS...........................................................................19
CHALLENGER NUTS AND BOLTS..................................................................29
ACTS OF CHANGE FORM (SAMPLE)...........................................................30
CHALLENGER COMMITMENT CONTRACT..................................................31
Appendix D 128
Challenger Congratulations
Congratulations on your decision to become a Challenger! All too often we hear young
people complaining about the circumstances, people and situations they experience
in their schools. To create change in your life or in your school, you must first know what
you would like to change and how you intend to make that change happen.
What if every day at your school could feel like Challenge Day? What if every student in
your school could feel safe, loved and celebrated? What would be your ideal school?
Remember: You are either part of the solution or part of the problem. By choosing to
become a Challenger, you have clearly decided to be a big part of the solution! You
are the hero you have been waiting for.
As a Challenger, you will be making a huge contribution to your school community and
you will also be providing yourself with numerous opportunities to learn and practice
valuable skills that can change your life forever! As a leader and role model, you will
join with other Challengers to help keep the spirit of Challenge Day alive and will be
setting the tone for the way people treat one another on your school campus.
As a Challenger, you will have the opportunity to improve the quality of life for both
yourself and others. By taking positive action on a daily basis, you will be demonstrating
that none of us has to live our life as a victim. We don’t have to accept things the way
they are or “have always been.” By directly confronting the problems of bullying,
teasing, isolation and separation on your campus, you will not only become a valuable
part of the solution for your school, you will also be serving as a role model of what’s
possible for students and schools across the nation.
In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, your real challenge is to…
“…be the change you wish to see in the world.”
Appendix D 129
Dropping the Waterline
“You can never know how far you can go unless you risk going to far”
– Anonymous
Most of us live our lives as if we are icebergs floating on the sea of life. We tend to hide
ourselves below the waterline and only allow the people around us to see the part of
ourselves that shows above the water, which is usually only about 10% of who we really
are. Let’s call this 10% our image. Many of us are so afraid of being rejected, we
attempt hide most of who we really are, even from our closest friends. For some of us,
this means acting hard or tough, being cool, being a jokester or maybe even
pretending we don’t care about anything at all.
Many of us, as young people and adults, find ourselves stuck trying to live up to an
image we believe will be acceptable to others. We create groups, cliques and even
stereotypes about the groups we associate ourselves with. We create labels for
ourselves and other people that seem to define how we should act and what we
should let people see. “I’m a jock, he’s a stoner, she’s a cheerleader, he’s popular,
she’s a geek, he’s a loser, he’s a gangster…” the list goes on.
What’s your image? What parts of yourself do you keep hidden? How does your image
keep you separate from other people? What do people really know about who you are
and what really matters in your life?
For many of us, hiding ourselves in an image leaves us feeling separate from other
people. For some of us, our fear of being judged or rejected stops us from showing
people who we really are. For many of us, the result is a life filled with loneliness and
isolation.
Your first challenge as a Challenger and role model will be to have the courage to
“Drop the Waterline” and to “Get Real!” By having the courage to share your dreams,
feelings, hopes, fears and desires with others, you actually do become the change!
“Truth has no special time of its own. Its hour is now – always.”
– Albert Schweitzer
Appendix D 130
Dropping the Waterline, Journal Page
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Appendix D 131
You Can Be the Change!
Why should you get involved in creating change? Because you are not a victim!
You have the power to change the world you live in. If you see something you
don’t like and don’t take action you become part of the problem. Just as you
can be a part of the problem, you can also be a part of the solution. Challenge
yourself to: “Be the change you wish to see!” Because if it’s not you, then who?
What if you knew that doing your part could change the entire culture of your
school? What if you knew you could truly “be the change”? Would you be willing
to do whatever it took to make that happen?
Remember change is possible. One person alone has the power to create
change. A group working together has even more power. As a Challenger, you
will be teaming with other committed youth leaders to provide a minimum of
one positive contribution or intervention on your school campus each day. By
keeping your commitment to yourself and your fellow Challengers you will be
able to watch the CHANGE HAPPEN! You will have the experience of “BEING THE
CHANGE!”
Just consider the following…
If you have 100 Challengers on your campus providing a minimum of 1
positive contribution or intervention a day, your group will provide 700
interventions or contributions in a week.
That’s 2,800 to 3,000 positive contributions or interventions each a
month!
If each Challenger makes 2 contributions or interventions per day, you
will have provided 5,600 to 6,000 positive interventions or contributions
on your campus in one month’s time! You will see the change happen!
So what if you have 200 Challengers? 300? 400? … How might your
school be different?
You really do have the
power to “Be the
Change!”
Appendix D 132
Challenge Day Formula for Change
Day after day, students in schools all over the country relate to one another in
ways dictated by habit or tradition. We hear young people everywhere say they
hate the way things are, but they continue to put up with and accept things
because, “that’s the way it’s always been.” At Challenge Day, we believe it’s
time for a change. We believe it’s time that we all take a conscious look at the
way things are, decide what we really want and then do whatever it takes to
change things. As a Challenger, you are committing yourselves to being that
change.
The Challenge Day Formula for Change is designed to assist you in being “the
change you wish to see” in your school.
We recommend that you, as a Challenger, utilize the following three steps when
making an intervention or contribution of any kind.
STEP 1 – NOTICE
• Stay aware, keep your eyes open and notice what’s happening around
you.
STEP 2 – CHOOSE
• Think through your list of options and alternatives for dealing with the
situation. Take your time and choose the course of action you believe
will best serve everyone involved.
STEP 3 – ACT
• Once you choose what would be the best thing to do, act! Now is your
time to “Be the Change!”
Appendix D 133
Common Forms of Separation and Violence
in School
As a Challenger, you will need to be aware of your surroundings and to
consciously look for ways to make a positive difference in the lives of others. The
following is a list of some of the most common forms of separation and violence
in which you might intervene.
1. Attitude and Negativity
• Demonstrating negative attitudes through hard looks, posturing, and/or
comments made toward or about others.
2. Rumors or Gossip
• Inventing or spreading negative or hurtful stories or beliefs about a certain
individual or group of individuals (true or not).
3. Cliques, Stereotypes and Exclusion
• Groupings, judgments and other forms of separation, which increase the
likelihood of loneliness and exclusion.
4. Verbal Abuse / Teasing
• Disrespectful and/or attacking comments directed at an individual or
group of individuals. Attacking or putting someone down by cat calls,
whistling, mocking or poking fun at another person’s expense.
5. Bullying / Intimidation
• Intentional and repeated harassment of an individual by a more influential,
older, bigger and/or more popular individual or group of individuals.
6. Physical Violence
• Repeated acts or threats of violence directed toward any individual.
Hitting, shoving, slapping, grabbing, molesting, raping or physically hurting
another person.
7. Group or gang violence, actions or threats
• Intentional group acts or threats of violence by a group toward another
individual or group.
“There is not a lack of love on this planet. There is a lack of courage to
express it.”
– Yvonne St. John–Dutra, Challenge Day Co-founder
Appendix D 134
The Problems Are Real!
Some of the most devastating and correctable problems in our country’s schools
have very little to do with their size or locations. Judgment, separation and
isolation have become an institutionalized and even expected part of the school
experience for young people all over our country. Loneliness and not “fitting in”
makes many young people more than sad. Rejection affects character
development and can leave lasting scars. As a nation, we have resigned
ourselves to the fact that things simply have to be this way. Nothing could be
further from the truth. Day after day at Challenge Days across the country, we
witness the miracle of young people and adults coming together in love, respect
and celebration of one another. It’s something we all want, and we believe
anything we all want, we can get!
Our vision is: Every young person goes to a school where they feel safe, loved
and celebrated!
We believe that …
• People who feel safe, loved, and celebrated are far more likely to
succeed, learn and/or pass those same gifts on to others.
• Isolation is not a result of a lack of people but rather a lack of connection
between the people.
• Scientific evidence clearly shows that emotional stress has a tremendous
effect on children’s brain and nervous system development, their ability to
learn and perform, and their long-term health. Many educators recognize
that cognitive ability alone is not the sole, or even the most critical,
determinant of a child’s potential for flourishing academically and
socially. (The Institute of Heart Math)
KEY FACTS AND STATISTICS ON YOUTH
• Nearly 25% of U.S children are victims of violent crime, including rape,
assault, robbery or homicide. (U.S. Bureau of Statistics)
• Youth between the ages of 12 and 17 are twice as likely as adults to be
victims of serious violent crime. (National Center for Health Statistics, 2002.)
• Every 22 seconds, a high school student in the U.S. attempts suicide. (Based
on CDC Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System data, 2001)
• 30% of high school seniors are classified as “heavy drinkers,” meaning they
consume five or more alcoholic beverages in a row. (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2001)
• Both people who bully and those who are bullied have trouble adjusting to
Appendix D 135
their environment both socially and psychologically. (The National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, 4/24/01)
• Surveys consistently find that about 30 to 40 percent of male youths and 15
to 30 percent of female youths report having committed a serious violent
offense by age 17. (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2001)
• Only 37% of youth report feeling a sense of personal power, and only half
feel that their life has purpose. (The Cornerstone Project, Santa Clara
County, CA/ Search Institute, 2000)
• As many as 26% percent of our children will use illicit drugs by the time they
th
reach the 12 grade. (U.S. Bureau of Statistics)
• In the U.S., 8 out of 10 girls report being unhappy with their bodies. And up
to 45% of teenage boys are dissatisfied with their appearance. Today,
more than 8 million Americans suffer from eating disorders. (Teen Files,
2000)
• More than 1.5 million Americans under the age of 15 are seriously
depressed. (Teen Files, 2000)
You Can Be The Change!
Appendix D 136
“Being the Change”
Thank you for having the courage to be the change! Now that you have
noticed, you will now begin to choose and act. When you choose, you are
looking for a powerful, positive response to what you noticed. The list below
includes strategies you can choose from to become part of the change you
want to see in the world. This list is only a starting point. Your opportunities to
create change are endless – be creative!
When creating change, remember the Golden Rule and always treat people
the way you would like to be treated. We’ve all been hurt and we’ve all done
the hurting. The more compassionate you are, the better your interventions will
be. Remember to never return violence with violence, and remember that
people don’t hurt other people unless they have been hurt themselves.
INTERVENTIONS
1. Confront – Say what you see. Offer your support to the situation. You can say
something like, “Hey that’s not cool,” “Is there anything I can do to help?” “I
really feel (insert a feeling word – sad, scared, angry) watching the two of you.
I’d love to support you if I can.”
2. Write a Letter – If you don’t want to confront someone in person, take the time to
write a letter. Write a letter to a peer or adult who you felt bullied or intimidated
by. Respectfully share how you feel about it and make suggestions about how
things would work better for you.
3. Elicit (Draw Out) Compassion – Ask questions like, “How would that feel if
someone did that to you?” or “Have you ever had that happen to you before?”
4. Negotiate – Whenever possible, strive to create a win-win situation for yourself and
the parties involved. Introduce positive options and solutions that they may not
have thought of.
5. Offer Support – Verbally offer support to someone being hurt or teased. Ask, “Are
you OK?” or “Do you need help?”
6. Active Listening – Listen attentively; when necessary, restate what you heard to
demonstrate you truly understand what’s being said.
7. Distraction – A simple distraction can go a long way toward defusing a
potentially harmful situation. Your distraction can be a joke, a total change of
the subject or a simple change of direction of the conversation.
8. Appeal to Reason – Use statements like, “Hey is this really worth getting suspended
for?” or “I know you’re mad but is it really worth the consequences?”
Appendix D 137
9. Remove – Respectfully removing yourself and a person from a situation can often
be the best intervention of all. You can often remove yourself and others from
potentially dangerous situations by just walking away or perhaps saying things
like, ”I’m just trying to help,” “I’m not trying to tell you how to live your life,” or “I
don’t want to cause more trouble.”
10. Demonstrate Caring – Lead with compassion, and commit yourself to “getting”
and/or understanding the other person’s experience. Compassionate questions
like, “How was that for you?” or “My sense is it really hurt.” Can help you better
understand and help the other person feel cared for.
11. Empathize and Express Support – Use statements like, “I understand what you
mean,” or “Don’t let them get to you. I think you’re really great.”
12. Reason – Non-violently reason with people involved in a conflict if it feels safe.
You may say something like, “Hey you guys, cool it. Someone could really get
hurt” or “You guys may want to knock it off, I just saw someone going to get the
principal.” You may want to send for help before you begin to reason with
someone.
13. Get Help – When in doubt, GET HELP! Avoid putting yourself in danger or trying to
handle too much.
14. Reach Out – Consciously look for students in need of attention.
15. Follow Up – Whenever possible, check back with people after you have
intervened. Offer your ongoing support and/or friendship as it feels appropriate
to you.
16. Refer – Know your resources – counselors, battered women’s support, conflict
mediators, peer counselors, Natural Helpers, campus supervisors, anger
management classes, etc. Knowing where to refer people for help can be one
of your best tools as a Challenger.
17. Contradict the Exclusion – Actively include the people around you in groups,
games and activities. Exclusion will persist only as long as you allow it to.
18. Relate and Educate – Speak directly to the person being targeted and say
something like, “Come on, you don’t deserve this” or “Wow, I can’t believe you
have to put up with this stuff.”
19. Challenge Day Rumor Elimination Model – Utilize the Challenge Day Rumor
Model.
20. “I” Messages – Use “I” Messages when speaking or sharing your thoughts.
Appendix D 138
CONTRIBUTIONS
1. “Mix It Up” Lunch – Eat lunch with someone you normally don’t talk to or who
you notice often eating alone. If you choose to eat with someone sitting
alone, invite them to join the group of people who you normally eat with.
2. Show the Love – Take time to compliment someone. Tell someone in your life
that you love them – especially someone who you have not told in a while.
Share the nice things that you think about people with them. Pick up the
phone and call someone who you have not talked to in a while or may live
out of town.
3. Go Outside Your Comfort Zone – Take a chance and step outside your comfort
zone. Introduce yourself to someone new on campus or in your community.
Include someone in your group who might otherwise be left out or teased.
4. Clean Up Your Environment – Clean up trash on campus. Figure out where
paper, cans and bottles can be recycled. Make your campus something you
are proud of. Clean up your room at home. Offer to clean out your parents’
car.
5. Help Someone – Help a teacher carry books into the classroom or organize the
desks at the end of the day. Help someone whose backpack is overflowing.
Share your strengths with someone else. Help someone else with a math,
writing project, science experiment, art project or other assignment.
6. Get Real – Drop the waterline. Get vulnerable. Show your true self to the
people around you. Take time to share with people how you are feeling. Your
example will create a safe space for them to be vulnerable too.
7. Hug or Hold Someone – Stop and take time to intentionally hug a friend,
parent, teacher or other person you care for.
8. Welcome Someone’s Tears – Hold the space for someone who is crying. Do
not try to make them feel better; just listen to how they are feeling. Make sure
that you REALLY listen.
9. Volunteer – Figure out what you are passionate about, then volunteer with an
organization that shares your passion. Volunteer to protect the environment,
work with children, serve people who are sick, spend time with older adults.
Your time is the most valuable thing that you can give to someone else.
10. Write a Poem or a Song for Someone – Use your creativity and write an “Ode
to My Best Friend” or a “Sonnet for My Favorite Teacher.” Create a rap or a
slam to tell someone how amazing you think they are.
11. Write a Heartfelt Note or Letter – Use the power of the written word. Even if
you take time to tell people how you feel about them, putting it in writing
allows them to look back at it when you are not around. Put pen to paper
and share your thoughts and feelings.
12. Spread a Wonderful “Rumor” – Intentionally pass on and share your positive
thoughts or experiences about or with someone.
Appendix D 139
13. See the Good in Everything – See the good in everything and speak it! Let
everyone know the magnificence that you see in the world. Let your positive
attitude rub off on the people around you.
14. Tell Someone How Much They Mean to You – Often we forget to tell the
people in our lives how important they are. Tell someone how much they do
for you and how important they are in your life.
15. Say You’re Sorry – Who have you hurt in your life? Look through your life and
find the people you have hurt. Take the time to apologize to them.
16. Keep Your Word – Integrity is keeping your word even when no one else is
looking. Take a look at your life and figure out where you have not kept your
word. If you have broken agreements with someone, take the time to make a
new agreement with them.
17. Hang Out – Spend time with a friend, family member or other person who is
important in your life.
18. Say Thank You – Share a heartfelt thank you with a teacher who’s made a
difference for you. Thank them for believing you, for making learning
interesting, for caring enough to say hello, or for anything else they do that
makes a difference in your life.
19. Free Lunch – Take a friend out to lunch or, when buying your own lunch, offer
to pay for the person who is standing in front of you in line. If you notice
someone not eating offer to buy lunch for them.
20. Just Listen – The gift of listening is one of the most valuable gifts you can give
to people in your life. Take time to listen to a friend or to someone who you
meet. When you offer this gift, make sure that your energy is really focused on
hearing what this person has to say.
21. Give a Gift – Intentionally surprise someone with a card or gift. You may
choose to give a gift to someone who would not expect it from you. The
value of the gift comes from the love that is behind it. Something small that
shows you care may be the most valuable gift you can give.
22. Say Hello! – Take the time to smile and say hi to everyone you see in the halls.
Continue this when you leave school and say hello to everyone you see on
the street.
23. Pass it On – Do an intentional favor for someone. Look for ways in which you
can help out someone and offer before they ask. When someone asks you to
do something for them that you would normally refuse or complain about,
take a breath and say yes. Follow through and complete the favor promptly.
24. Share the Wealth – Share food with a homeless person. Compliment or speak
nicely to a person on the street. Give someone coins to feed a meter or buy
a newspaper. Purchase a warm drink for someone who is cold or a cold drink
for someone who is hot.
Appendix D 140
PERSONAL
1. Exercise – Take time to move your body. Go for a long walk. Make time to go
to the gym. Celebrate your body.
2. Create a Personal Growth Plan for Your Life – What would help you be the best
person that you are? What would need to be in place? What would your life
look like? Create a plan that takes care of your body, your mind, your heart
and your spirit.
3. Rest – Remember to take time out. Life can be pretty crazy at times. Make
time to relax and appreciate the silence.
4. Choose to Care for Rather Than Hurt Yourself – Let go of a behavior that is selfdestructive. Forgive yourself when you find yourself being self-critical. Love
yourself as much as you would your best friend.
5. Look in the Mirror and See What You Like – Say it out loud to yourself.
6. Look for the Positive In Life – Notice what’s wonderful around you and remind
yourself about it.
7. Keep a Gratitude Journal – Write down at least 10 things you’re grateful for
each day.
8. Ask for Compliments – Ask someone who loves you to tell you what they love
about you.
9. Surround Yourself with Positive Messages – Decorate your room with positive
posters and inspirational messages.
10. Watch Movies or Read Books with Positive Messages – Go see or rent an
uplifting and positive movie, such as “Pay it Forward,” or read an book that
inspires you.
11. Create a Favorite Memories Album – Get a photo album and fill it with
pictures, poems, stories and other things to remind you of your favorite
moments in life.
12. Take a Walk in a Place You Love – Notice how beautiful it is and how great
you feel while you’re there.
13. Empty Your Balloon – Ask someone you trust to listen to you while you talk
about and share your feelings to empty your balloon.
14. Step Out of Your Comfort Zone – Take a safe, fun risk and celebrate yourself
when you do.
15. Notice How You “Cross Your Thumbs” – Pay attention to the habits you have,
and notice the ones that don’t serve you. Then take action to change them.
Be sure to enroll others in supporting you to make the change!
Appendix D 141
“I” vs. “You” Messages
Listen to people talk. Notice how some people talk in the first person (using “I”),
while others use the second person (using “you”). By saying “I” instead of “You”
when talking (especially about feelings), the speaker takes full ownership for their
words and for communicating from their hearts.
Using “I” messages can be both empowering and vulnerable. The power of “I”
messages allows the listener to know where you really stand and, in most cases,
allows the listener to more easily separate their views from yours. Many people
continue to use “You” messages out of habit or because they fear being
vulnerable even after they’ve learned to use “I” messages. Although they can
be scary, “I” messages allow for much more effective communication.
Another challenge for many of us in using “I” messages is that they require us to
name how we feel. Many of us do not have a good “feeling” vocabulary. “I”
messages require that we be able to name how we feel. With practice, it will get
easier to identify your feelings. Sometimes you may find that sounds are more
expressive than words. “I feel AHHHHHHHHH,” may be a good way to get started
with the feeling words. Let’s look more clearly at the difference between “You”
Messages and “I” Messages…
“You” Messages
• Tell the listener about them instead of about you.
• The listener often feels blamed, attacked, put down, angry or
defensive (most people don’t like to be told how they feel or what
they believe).
• The listener often shuts off, pulls away (physically or emotionally)
attacks back, or simply ignores the speaker.
Some examples of “You” Messages
o You made me feel ____________when you ____________.
o You never _________________, you are so ____________.
o You always ________________, you are so ____________.
“I” Messages
• The speaker talks about their own feelings, thoughts or beliefs
• The speaker tells about what they themselves feel, want or need
• The speaker is never wrong! (No one can say you don’t feel that way,
although many people will try!)
Some examples of “I” Messages
o I feel ___________ when _________________ is said or done.
o I want ___________
o I need____________
o When_____________ happens, I feel ______________
Appendix D 142
Challenge Day Feeling Words
Absorbed
Adored
Adventurous
Affectionate
Afraid
Aggravated
Alarmed
Alert
Alive
Aloof
Angry
Annoyed
Anxious
Apprehensive
Aroused
Ashamed
Bashful
Beat
Bitter
Blah
Blamed
Blissful
Calm
Carefree
Chagrined
Cocky
Cold
Confident
Conflicted
Confused
Connected
Content
Contracted
Dejected
Depressed
Desperate
Detached
Disappointed
Disenchanted
Disgruntled
Displeased
Distant
Distressed
Down
Eager
Ecstatic
Elated
Embarrassed
Engrossed
Enthusiastic
Exasperated
Excited
Exhausted
Expansive
Fascinated
Fatigued
Fearful
Foolish
Frightened
Frustrated
Glad
Gloomy
Grateful
Guarded
Guilty
Happy
Helpless
Honored
Hopeless
Humiliation
Hungry
Hurt
Impatient
Inadequate
Incomplete
Indignant
Inhibited
Inspired
Insufficient
Intense
Interested
Irritated
Isolated
Joyous
Judged
Justified
Lacking
Lonely
Loved
Loving
Low
Melancholic
Mellow
Met
Misunderstood
Mournful
Needed
Needy
Optimistic
Overjoyed
Overwhelmed
Passionate
Patient
Peaceful
Perky
Pity
Pleased
Protected
Proud
Quiet
Rejected
Relaxed
Remorseful
Resentful
Restless
Sad
Scared
Secure
Shaky
Shocked
Shy
Sorrowful
Sorry
Splendid
Stubborn
Stuck
Stupid
Superior
Supported
Tender
Terrified
Thankful
Threatened
Thrilled
Tickled
Timid
Tired
Touched
Tranquil
Trusted
Understood
Uneasy
Upbeat
Valued
Victimized
Vulnerable
Wanted
Warm
Wide-Awake
Withdrawn
Wonderful
Zestful
Appendix D 143
More Tools for Communication
Ask permission
Drop the waterline
Use “I”
Say “thank you” when someone shares what’s under their waterline
WHAT IS UNDER THE WATERLINE?
o An Amends – An apology. Your attempt to make it right.
o A Withhold – Something that is in between you and another
person, like a grudge.
o Some Feedback – coaching or helpful hints; something you think
will help this person.
o Validation / Appreciation – An honest compliment or
acknowledgement that you have not shared. Time to get real
and share the love!
Appendix D 144
Relationship Inventory
Thinking about the relationships in your life, please complete the following
inventory. Remember the goal of the inventory is to give you an honest look at
your closest relationships as a means of allowing you to create deeper
connections.
1. Please list people with whom you want to share an amends. An amends is an
apology for something you regret or would like to make right between you and
another person.
Names Amends
2. Please list people with whom you have a withhold. A withhold is a belief, a
judgment, an assumption, a resentment or anything that you have not shared
which creates distance between you and another person.
Names Withhold
3. Please list people for whom you have honest feedback. Feedback is an
observation or bit of coaching you have to share with another person that you
believe will support them in their life and/or their relationship with you.
Names Feedback
4. Please list people with whom you have an appreciation to share. An appreciation
is a form of validation or compliment.
Names Appreciation
Appendix D 145
Challenge Day Rumor Elimination Model
As a Challenger, part of your commitment as a leader and role model will be to
do your best not to participate in spreading rumors and gossip. The Challenge
Day Rumor Elimination Model is designed to provide an effective way to
intervene with when rumors and gossip are happening in your presence.
Step 1: Attempt To Interrupt
• Do your best to interrupt any signs of rumors, gossip, resentment or
negative judgments about other people
• Try saying something like, “I’d prefer not to hear this, I think you should talk
to the person directly”
Step 2: Listen
• If the person speaking is too upset to stop talking or to take responsibility for
speaking directly to the person they are speaking about, offer a safe
place for them to share any feelings and beliefs they need to share
(support them in emptying their balloon).
• Share compassion for the speaker’s feelings without adding to the
separation or agreeing with the speaker’s judgments.
Note – If you find yourself with a similar feeling, judgment or concern about a
person, your job as a Challenger is to clear up your concern or judgment
directly with the person it is with.
Step 3: Get a Commitment
• Confirm that the speaker can drop their concern, stop talking negatively or
is willing to speak directly with the person they have judgments or
concerns about.
• Clarify a time when the speaker would be willing to clear up their concern
directly. Offer to support the person if it seems appropriate or necessary.
Note – Remind the speaker that spreading rumors or holding resentments can
actually hurt the person who says or carries them more that the person who
the rumor is about.
Step 4: Check Back
• Set a time to double check that the person has followed through on their
commitment.
• Offer your support if the person fails to follow through or has a difficulty getting
the desired results.
Step 5: Never Repeat
• Let the rumor end with you! Do not pass on to other people rumors that
you hear. Remember there are two sides to every story.
Appendix D 146
Challenger Scenarios
Below is a list of common scenarios that take place on school campuses across the
country. We suggest that you take time to think through and practice possible
interventions for each scenario. We believe that if every Challenger has the tools to
intervene in each of these situations… Powerful Change Will Happen!
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Scenario 1 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – In choosing teams for a basketball
game, people begin arguing about which team will have to take a player they believe
is less skilled.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Scenario 2 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – You and a friend overhear a group of
people making racist comments about someone and planning to exclude that person
from eating lunch at their table.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Scenario 3 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – A group of your friends start making
offensive and stereotypical comments about another group of students in your school.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Scenario 4 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – A student in class makes a clearly racist
comment in front of the room. The classroom erupts with laughter.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 5 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – You witness a small group of students
moving away from another student who is crying and clearly upset.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 147
Scenario 6 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – Walking around campus, you and a
group of friends start to notice that your school seems very divided and that many
groups appear to always stay in their own areas.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 7 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – You are one of the more popular
people on campus and today you start to notice that many people in your school are
sitting alone at breaks and that many of them seem sad and lonely.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 8 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – A friend of yours starts making “blond
jokes.”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 9 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – While sitting in the quad with a group of
your senior friends, a freshman boy tries to sit close by. Your friends start telling the boy
to go sit with his “little freshmen friends.”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 10 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – A friend is having a party and all but
one of your very best friends has been invited.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 11 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – You overhear two friends pointing out
an attractive and successful female student and saying things like, ”She’s so stuck
up…who does she think she is?”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 148
Scenario 12 – Cliques, Stereotypes & Exclusion – At lunch you notice a boy eating all
alone in the corner of the quad. You ask someone who he is and your friends say, “Oh
he’s just some new kid. He’s really weird.”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 13 – Rumors / Gossip – You and a friend walk up to a group of people and
find that they are making homophobic comments about another student.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 14 – Rumors / Gossip – While sitting in class, two of your friends start telling you
about a rumor they heard about a female friend of yours being drunk and having sex
at a party.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 15 – Rumors / Gossip – Two of your friends come to you on separate occasions
complaining about the other.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 16 – Rumors / Gossip – For three days now you have heard two of your friends
complaining about a group of students who they believe has been spreading rumors
about them. You are friends with both groups.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 17 – Rumors / Gossip – You overhear two of your male friends bragging to a
whole group of guys about a sexual experience they claim to have had with a female
student from your school.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 149
Scenario 18 – Rumors / Gossip – You and a group of students are working very closely
with a teacher who starts to openly complain about the attitude of another teacher
from your school.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 19 – Attitude / Negative Energy – Walking down the hall with a friend, you see
a group of female students obviously glaring at and talking about another female
student who is standing near by.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 20 – Attitude / Negative Energy – As you and a group of friends walk to sit at
the far end of a lunch table, you pass another group of students. They begin to glare,
talk under their breath and laugh as you pass.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 21 – Attitude / Negative Energy – You notice that a teacher who is obviously
tired and frustrated is making humiliating, rude and disrespectful comments to students.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 22 – Attitude / Negative Energy – You watch as your favorite teacher tells a
student that they may receive a low grade. The student rolls her eyes and murmurs
under her breath rude and disrespectful comments about the teacher.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 23 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – You and a friend find yourselves in the middle of
a student screaming and swearing at a teacher because of his grade.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 150
Scenario 24 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – You find yourself at a sporting event with three
of your peers. The coach is screaming profanities at one of your best friends because
she made a mistake in the game.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 25 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – A large-bodied young woman is being teased
and laughed at by a group of students as she walks into your classroom.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 26 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – You and a group of friends are hanging out
together and one of your friends starts mimicking and making fun of another student’s
accent or way of speaking.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 27 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – You overhear a conversation between two of
your friends where one of your friends is teasing the other about being skinny by saying
things like, ”Are you anorexic?”
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Scenario 28 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – You witness a student who is often teased drop
their belongings as they walk to the front of the classroom. The entire class erupts in
laughter.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 29 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – A regularly teased and tortured student is once
again being teased and verbally abused by a group of “popular” students.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 151
Scenario 30 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – A student in class raises his hand to share his
answer to a teacher’s question. You’re sitting next to a friend who turn’s to you and
say’s “That’s so gay.”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 31 – Verbal Abuse / Teasing – A group of students tease and harass other
students on a daily basis about their bodies and appearance.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 32 – Bullying / Intimidation – While standing in line for lunch you witness a
group of “popular” students push their way in line in front of two “less popular” students.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 33 – Bullying / Intimidation – A new administrator comes to your school and,
without consulting with students, immediately imposes rules that students feel are unfair.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 34 – Bullying & Intimidation – As you and some female friends walk together
down the hall, a group of guys start “cat calling” and whistling at one of the young
women from your group.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 35 – Bullying / Intimidation – It’s a rainy day and a group of older students are
blocking the hallway forcing the freshman to walk in the rain to get to class.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 152
Scenario 36 – Bullying / Intimidation – You witness a group of classmates intimidating
another student into letting them copy her homework. The student clearly doesn’t want
to go along with the group.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 37 – Bullying / Intimidation – As a member of a sports team, you notice that
many of your teammates have started doing mean pranks on one another.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 38 – Bullying / Intimidation – You are at a party and someone lights up a joint
and you see them aggressively pressuring your friend to take a hit.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 39 – Physical Violence – You and a friend witness two younger students being
pushed against the wall by three seniors.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 40 – Physical Violence – You witness a group of male students grabbing the
butts of two female students as they walk down the hall. The female students are clearly
offended.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 41 – Physical Violence – You are with a friend who accuses another student of
taking his jacket. As a result, a fight breaks out in the hallway.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 42 – Physical Violence – Walking alone across campus, you come across two
students fighting. You immediately recognize that some of your classmates standing
nearby are egging things on.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 153
Scenario 43 – Physical Abuse – You are at a party with two of your friends and you
witness a male friend get angry at his girlfriend for talking with another guy. He calls her
derogatory names under his breath and then grabs her by the arm and forcefully pulls
her from the room.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 44 – Physical Violence – Many of your friends have been punching or shoving
one another as a way of playing around.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 45 – Group / Gang Threats – You and a friend overhear a group of known
gang members angrily taking about a teacher and threatening to destroy the
teacher’s car.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 46 – Group / Gang Threats – You hear a rumor that two boys have guns at
school and they are planning to use them against a group of students who have
harassed them all year.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Scenario 47 – Group / Gang Threats – Your friends try to enroll you in a freshman
hazing/humiliation prank.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Appendix D 154
Challenger Nuts and Bolts
CONFIDENTIALITY AND REPORTING LAWS
Making sure that people can trust you to keep things confidential is an important part
of being a Challenger. At the same time, if someone is in danger, it is critical that you
get help immediately from your Challenger Coordinator, a teacher, a counselor or
another adult you trust. Being in danger means that someone you talk to is:
1. Being hurt by someone else
2. Planning to or currently hurting themselves
3. OR hurting someone else.
Depending on the circumstances, it may be best to let the person know that you are
going to have to share what they have told you because it is important to you that they
get the support that they deserve.
NOTES:
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Appendix E 155
As a Challenger I commit to…
Remembering that I am the hero that I’ve been waiting for.

Notice what is happening; Choose what to do; and Act.

Keeping Challenge Day alive on my campus.

Completing and documenting a minimum of one empowering intervention or contribution per
day.

Actively looking for opportunities to make positive contributions in the lives of those around me.

Helping create a campus where every student feels safe, loved and celebrated.

Maintaining a personal support system of allies who can listen to and/or offer me support and
suggestions.

Serving as a positive role model and leader on and off campus.

Providing support to any other Challenger in need of assistance.

Offering congratulations and support to anyone I see making a positive contribution on campus.

Honoring all confidentiality and reporting laws as they relate to my role as a Challenger.

Seeking adult support as needed (when in doubt I will get help!).

Attending all meetings and trainings required for my involvement as a Challenger.

Overcoming criticism that I may encounter. I know that as a leader I may be judged and that all
the best leaders are!

Getting back up when I make mistakes and “fall down” in my role as a Challenger.
__________________________________
Print Challenger Name
__________________________________ __________________
Challenger Signature Date
__________________________________ __________________
Witness Signature Date
Be the Change!
Appendix E 156
Appendix E 157
Appendix E 158