UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG
Department of Earth Sciences
Geovetarcentrum/Earth Science Centre
Geomorphic analysis
of dead-ice topography,
moraine-ridge distribution,
and ice-margin position
west of Mt Billingen
using ArcGIS applications
Eric Zettervall
ISSN 1400-3821
Mailing address
Geovetarcentrum
S 405 30 Göteborg
Address
Geovetarcentrum
Guldhedsgatan 5A
B640
Bachelor of Science thesis
Göteborg 2011
Telephone
031-786 19 56
Telefax
031-786 19 86
Geovetarcentrum
Göteborg University
S-405 30 Göteborg
SWEDEN
Geomorphologic analysis of dead-ice topography, moraine-ridge distribution,
and ice-margin position west of Mt Billingen using ArcGIS application
Eric Zettervall, University of Gothenburg, Department of Earth Sciences; Geology,
Geovetarcentrum. Box 460, SE-405 30 Göteborg.
Abstract
GIS analysis has been done on geomorphologic features in Valle härad, west of Mt Billingen.
Most of the results were obtained in ArcGIS by combining different spatial analysis tools, e.g.
focal statistics and contour lines. The study area is hummocky and considered to be created
by collapse of dead ice.
One of the questions this study has been focusing on is what the topography looked like
before the dead ice collapsed and in what direction it was sloping. By an interpolation
technique, the former hypothetical topography was sloping towards west and north.
At ground level, the terrain seems to have disoriented hills. But this study shows that
hillcrests have an overall orientation of east to west. The east-to-west orientation of hillcrests
is interesting since it is similar to the orientation of the ice margin during deglacation.
Another question this study considers the ridges in the Middle Swedish end-moraine zone. By
analyzing topographic height patterns, there are some ridges within Valle härad region that
could represent an expression of the ridges in the hummocky Valle härad. This result and
other geomorphic features provide a guideline for interpreting the ice-margin position and
orientation.
Keywords: Collapsed dead-ice topography, Middle Swedish end-moraine zone, Ice-margin
position, Orientation analysis, Valle härad, focal statistics
Geomorfologisk analys av dödis topografi, distribution av moränryggar samt
iskantens position väster om Billingen, med hjälp av tillämpningar inom
ArcGIS.
Eric Zettervall, Göteborgs Universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper; Geologi,
Geovetarcentrum. Box 460, SE-405 30 Göteborg.
Sammanfattning
En geomorfologisk GIS-studie har gjorts i Valle härad, ett område väster om Billingen. De
flesta resultat erhölls genom att kombinera olika geografiska analysverktyg, som t.ex. ”Focal
statistics” och konturlinjer. Valle härad är mycket kuperat och anses vara skapad av kollapsad
dödis. På marknivå ser terrängen ut att bestå av desorienterade kullar. Men denna studie visar
att kullarnas ryggar har en generell riktning öst till väst. Kullarnas ryggar i öst-västlig riktning
är intressant eftersom den liknar iskantens position.
En av frågorna denna studie har fokuserat på är hur topografin såg ut innan dödis fick delar av
Valle härad att kollapsa och i vilken riktning lutade topografin. Genom en
interpolationsteknik, visar resultat att den hypotetiska topografin lutar mot väst och norr.
En annan fråga som behandlats är moränryggarna i Mellansvenska isrand zonen. Genom att
analysera topografiska höjdmönster, visar det sig att vissa ryggar kan ha ett uttryck i det
kuperade Valle härad. Dessa ryggar och andra landskapsformer hjälpte till som en riktlinje för
tolkning av iskantens position och orientering.
Keywords: Kollapsad dödistopografi, Mellansvenska israndzonen, iskantens position,
Riktningsanalys, Valle härad, focal statistics
Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
Study area ..................................................................................................................... 1
Methods ......................................................................................................................... 4
Dead-ice topography ................................................................................................................. 4
Un-collapsed dead-ice topography – Interpolated surface................................................... 4
Orientation of hillcrests and orientation of hill slopes ......................................................... 5
Moraine ridge distribution and suggested ice-margin positions ................................................ 5
Results ........................................................................................................................... 6
Dead-ice topography ................................................................................................................. 6
Un-collapsed dead-ice topography – Interpolated surface................................................... 6
Orientation of hillcrests and orientation of hill slopes ......................................................... 7
Moraine ridge distribution ......................................................................................................... 9
Discussion.................................................................................................................... 10
Interpolated surface ................................................................................................................. 10
Hillcrests.................................................................................................................................. 11
Moraine ridge distribution and suggested ice-margin positions .............................................. 11
Maps of moraine ridge distribution, interpret ice-margin and interpolated surface ................ 11
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 14
Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................ 14
References ................................................................................................................... 15
Appendix .....................................................................................................................16
Legend of soil class map ......................................................................................................... 16
Introduction
This study is a geomorphologic GIS-analysis on Valle härad, an area west of Mt Billingen.
The topology in Valle härad is hummocky and believed to be caused by dead-ice collapse.
The hummocks are composed of glaciofluvial material of sedimentary bedrock in sizes
between blocks to sand, and there are two main theories about the origin of this deposition.
The most accepted theory is that former ice-sheet retreat deposited the sediment by
glaciofluvial processes. Others argue that a huge drainage of the Baltic Ice Lake (BIL)
transported the sediment and deposited it in Valle härad. But this thesis will try to argue the
former theory that sediment in Valle härad is deposited glaciofluvially and that the
geomorphology is primarily formed by dead-ice collapse.
The geomorphologic features studied are primarily moraine ridges and the hummocky
topography. Questions to be answered are if the hillcrests in the hummocky area have an
alignment and, if they have, what does it mean. Another question is what the topography
looked like before the dead ice collapsed the area and in what direction it was sloping.
West of Valle härad lie the middle Swedish end moraine zone. By analysing the topography,
is there a continuation or expression of these moraine ridge landforms eastward into the
hummocky Valle härad.
This study is mainly a GIS work, dealing with the abilities in ArcGIS to make
geomorphologic orientation analysis. Although some field inspections were made, no field
surveys have been made on the crests orientations, former topography, or moraine-ridge
distribution in Valle härad.
Study area
Valle härad (fig 1, 2) has the highest elevation compared with the surroundings, except Mt
Billingen further east. Westwards the hummocky topography in Valle härad becomes less
expressive and the topology flattens out as broad plains between the moraine ridges. Next to
Mt Billingen the elevations is about 150 m.a.s.l and decreased to about 65 meters in west.
North of town Skara lie middle Swedish end-moraine zone (fig 1), names of these in order
from south to north: Skara, Skånings-Åsaka, Kulla, Ledsjö, Uppsala, Flintås, and
Gullhammar. Moraine ridges are the result of an oscillating retreat of the ice margin, which
deformed the underlying clay and created this ridge pattern. According to Björck and
Digerfeldt (1984) the ice margin stood at the Skara ridge and crossed Valle härad and finally
made a northern turn next to Mt Billingen at 10 500 – 10 600 B.P. They also suggest that all
the other ridges were made at that time interval. If there is a continuation in forms and
orientation of the ridges in Valle härad, is of the questions this study will try to answer with
help from ArcGIS and Arcscene.
Valle härad is an area built up by glaciofluvial blocky sand (fig 2). Westwards, the soil class
is glaciofluvial gravel. Shale bearing sediment is present in Valle härad and follows the
sloping topography westwards, and in between the moraine ridges. The sediment consists
clasts of sandstone, limestone, and alum shale derived from the bedrock on Mt Billingen.
Cross-section profiles from Björck & Digerfeldt (1984) of Valle härad indicate sloping
bedrock west of Mt Billingen. The profiles show thickness of sediment in Valle härad to
about 40-50 meters.
According to Björck and Digerfeldt (1984) an early Baltic ice lake (BIL) drainage occurred
during Alleröd with a sea level drop of 10-15 m. This drainage occurred around 13000 cal yr
1
BP (Björck, 2008). Because Valle härad had a lower elevation at that time, drainage sediment
filled the area (Björck and Digerfeldt, 1984).
According to Andrén, Lindeberg, & Andrén (2002) the major BIL drainage occurred around
11690 B.P. Evidence of this BIL drainage can be found on Klyftamon, where the former
sediment on the bedrock is washed off. Buried sand and gravel associated with this drainage
can be found at Götene. This sediment is believed to be BIL drainage deposits (Johnson,
Ståhl, Larsson, & Seger, 2010). According Björck and Digerfeldt (1984), Valle härad could
not been affected by the latest BIL drainage because of its high elevation. They also suggest
that the shale-bearing sediment westwards had been transported by melt water from dead ice
in Valle härad when the dead ice melted after the Younger Dryas. How the topography was
sloping before dead ice melted this study will try to answer by creating an interpolated
surface above the tops in Valle härad.
Fig. 1. This map shows geomorphologic and geologic features in the study area (Johnson et al.,
2010). Features this study focus on; Moraine ridges (black) and dead-ice topography in Valle
härad (light grey with dots).
2
Fig. 2. Soil class map (Påsse, 2006) with an inserted polygon (angular cerise colour) presenting
Valle härad area. The ledgend is to be found in appendix.
Strömberg (1977) shows glaciofluvial erosional valleys right next to the western side of Mt
Billingen at higher elevations that drain into the Valle härad region. Strömberg (1977)
supposed that the deposition of shale bearing sediment westwards might be a result of
glaciofluvial drainage in front or within the zone of the retreating ice-margin.
Valle härad is hummocky and is well known for being collapsed by dead ice (Johnson &
Ståhl, 2010). Dead-ice topography is sometimes called kame and kettle topography. Dead ice
is separated from the active ice sheet when retreating. Kettles and kames are then formed
when the isolated ice is melting. The debris inside and on top will collapse making an
irregular topography. An important process in “de-icing” that creates new geomorphologic
features is called “topographic inversion”. Mass movement and melting of the ice will move
the debris from heights down to lows. This will lead to an exposure of the ice in heights. The
ice will eventually melt and create new topographic low or so-called depressions. Heights
become depressions (Evans, 2007).
Summerfield (1991) suggests that dead-ice topography tends to lack alignment. But Benn &
Evans (2010) point out that kame and kettle topography can have alignment, which would
indicate a controlled deposition, and/or a drainage system. Johnson and Clayton (2003) has
discussed controlled depostition and they say that hummocks with these linear patterns are
believed to have inherited their orientation from the parent ice. They say that crevasses and
thrust planes in parent ice can be the cause. In this study one of the main questions is whether
or not the hillcrest of this dead-ice topography has a preferred orientation.
3
Fig 3 shows how stagnant and active ice interacts and how they produce hummocky
topography. Johnson & Clayton (2003) suggest, scenario A is unlikely to create large
hummocky tracts. Scenario B suggests that, as the active ice retreats the stagnant ice expands
and when this ice melts it will leave a hummocky topography. Scenario C is more complex.
The retreating active ice leaves behind a stagnant ice block covered with debris. This could by
itself create a hummocky topography, or as in C3 the active ice re-advances and regrows the
stagnant ice and then retreat again.
Fig. 3. This figure illustrates how active and stagnant ice interacts to create hummocky
topography (Johnson and Clayton, 2003).
Methods
To make this analysis, ArcGIS 10 and Arcscene 10 software were used. Data about the
elevation and geography was downloaded from Lantmäteriet, Swedish mapping authority.
Data has the coordinate system of SWEREF99 TM and the elevation in raster has the
resolution of 50 × 50 meters in x and y horizontal and 1 meter in z, vertical. Data about
sediment types in the study area was retrieved from Sveriges geologiska undersökning. I have
also georeferenced the glaciofluvial erosional valleys pointed out by Strömberg (1977).
Dead-ice topography
Un-collapsed dead-ice topography – Interpolated surface
Dead-ice topography represents collapsed and un-collapsed surfaces. In this analysis I want to
view a surface that represents the un-collapsed tops. The surface is meant to cut higher tops
and intersect with flat areas westwards. This is made to see how the former topography
looked like, assuming that the highpoints in the collapsed landscape represent uncollapsed
portions of this former surface. The resulting figure should show the height of the surface,
how much it is sloping and in what direction.
4
Most of the geomorphologic analysis was done on the elevation data with applications such as
spatial analysis toolset, editor, and data management.
To identify major hills, in perspective of heights and area, a function called focal statistics
was applied on the elevation. According to Zakšek and Podobnikar (2005) this tool and many
others works fine when extracting expressive areas or points from a digital elevation model
(DEM). Focal statistics was assigned to work on a circle with a radius of 2 cells (100 meters).
The tool is meant to calculate maximum values in the circle according to the elevation. Flat
areas in west were identified using focal statistics, changing from maximum to minimum
statistics. Every identified major hill and flat areas in west got its own point, selected by hand.
To create a flat sloping surface; every point had to get unique elevation values. This was
assigned by using the tool “extract values to points”.
By using the interpolation method “topo to raster”, every point was interpolated to create a
hydrological DEM with a drainage structure (Childs, 2004).
Orientation of hillcrests and orientation of hill slopes
Orientation of crests was calculated by first identifying major hills, by studying the maximum
focal statistics and contour lines of 2 meters. Polylines were drawn diagonally between the
highest contour line on top of the identified major hills. These lines represent the hills’
orientation. Orientation values of the lines were extracted by the spatial analysis tool, “zonal
geometric as table is”. These values were inserted and displayed in a rose diagram by using
the software GEOrient.
Mean orientation of the lines was calculated using the spatial statistics toolset, “linear
directional mean”.
To identify the orientation of hill slope, a buffer of 100 meters was made on the polylines.
Then by applying the aspect tool on elevation, orientation of slope was identified on the
buffers. By converting the aspect output to integer, values could be calculated to show if there
is any preferred orientation of slope.
Moraine ridge distribution and suggested ice-margin positions
To interpret the distribution of the moraine ridges (Fig. 1) into the Valle härad region, points
were used to clearly see if the ridges follow the topography eastwards. To sort out major hills
focal statistics was used. With help from a hillshade, contour lines of 5 meters and focal
statistics, all viewed in 2D and 3D, all major hills received their own point picked by hand.
To see if there is a ridge expression, Arcscene was used.
By combining 3D views of major hills, polylines of hillcrests, and mapped-out moraine ridges
by Sveriges geologiska undersökning, a line of interest was drawn. This line is meant to show
topography created at an ice-margin. Mean orientation of the interpreted ice-margin was
calculated using the tool “linear directional mean”. This was done to make a comparison with
the mean orientation of the hillcrests.
5
Results
Dead-ice topography
Un-collapsed dead-ice topography – Interpolated surface
The output of the focal statistic tool is shown in fig 4. In the figure, only the higher values of
maximum focal statistics (which are not elevation) have been selected. It also shows blue and
pink points. All have been picked according to different characteristics.
Blue points are those, which have high focal statistic values and fit in the highest tops given
by the contour lines (see the zoomed picture in fig 4). Pink points has been selected by it’s
attributed of being between moraine ridges and on flat areas in west. Fig 5 shows a good view
in 3D of the point’s position.
Fig. 4. A map showing maximum hill elevation; an output of the focal statistics tool. More
reddish colour indicates one or more circles with higher values (higher hill), these areas have a
blue point on top which has been selected by hand. Points in pink colour indicate flat areas
and/or between moraine ridges. Zoomed picture shows picked points at a smaller scale.
6
Fig. 5. 3D picture; oblique view from south to north. This picture display blue points on hills and
yellow points on flat areas. Underlying layer is a hillshade, whiter areas has higher elevation.
Yellow regions are moraine mapped by Sveriges geologiska undersökning (Påsse, 2006).
Fig 6 display Valle härad (as the polygon in fig 1) and the interpolated surface on top of an
elevation layer. The interpolation method “topo to raster” is made on the blue and pink points.
The interpolated surface includes the elevations of the major hills (blue points) and the pink
points, which are the elevations of the contact between the edges of moraine ridges and the
intermoraine flats. But in this figure it is best displayed with higher elevation sticking up
through the interpolation. Result shows that the elevation is highest next to Mt Billingen and
in the south. The elevation is decreasing and sloping towards west and north.
Fig. 6. Result of the "topo to raster" interpolation. View is from south to north.
Orientation of hillcrests and orientation of hill slopes
A polyline on top of 42 hills (fig 7) was drawn according to the methodology described
above. The orientations of these lines can be seen in the rose diagram in fig 8. The hillcrests
have an overall orientation of east to west and they are approximately oval or elongated.
Mean orientation of the crests is N 87 E.
7
Fig. 7. Map of the identified hillcrests in Valle härad.
Fig. 8. The rose diagram presenting orientation of the hillcrests.
The orientation of hill slope (aspect) analysis (which is made on buffers around hillcrests)
indicates that more cells slope forward north and south, as in fig 9. This data is more or less
another expression of previous data on hillcrests (fig 8). This result is related to the polylines
length and the crests orientation. If the polyline is longer and has an east to west orientation
more cells will be placed on the north and south side.
8
Fig. 9. The aspect analysis on buffers around hillcrests. More cells incline towards north or
south.
Moraine ridge distribution
The points in figure 10 Illustrate where there is higher elevation, in this case; a hill or on
moraine ridges. These points are not the same as the points in “dead ice topology” section.
This map was made to determine if it is possible to observe a continuation of high points in
Valle Härad that could be interpreted as a continuation of each of the moraine ridges. The
points are almost in alignment with each other. But the figure is still too complex to make a
judgment on, if there is a distribution through Valle härad or not.
Fig. 10. Yellow areas are the moraine ridges. Green points illustrate higher elevation, on ridges
or outside ridges, and all points are picked by hand.
9
The same area is show in an oblique view in fig 11. It has almost the same legend as the
previous figure but instead of elevation as background it has the maximum focal statistics as
black to white background, where whiter areas means higher elevation. In this figure the base
heights of the focal statistics layer has been modified, presenting a vertical exaggeration.
Fig. 11. 3D figure; view from north. Almost the same legend as in fig 10, only the elevation has
been replaced by the maximum focal statistics layer.
Discussion
Interpolated surface
The interpolated surface is what the topography could have looked like before dead ice
collapsed the area next to Mt Billingen. Underlying this is an assumption that the precollapsed surface may be a single, outwash surface. The surface elevation is similar to the
cross-section profiles made by Björck and Digerfeldt (1984). Both have a rise in elevation
towards Mt Billingen.
The glaciofluvial erosional valleys pointed out by Strömberg (1977) might be related to the
outwash and the shale bearing sediment westwards. A possible scenario is that the ice eroded
the sedimentary bedrock on Mt Billingen. Then huge amount of melt water would pick up the
eroded material and transport this throughout these erosional valleys at higher elevation.
This water would then flow towards west and in-between the moraine ridges. As the water
flows, it would first deposit the greater grain sizes and then deposit smaller grain sizes further
west. This theory in supported by the soil class map (fig 2), which show that Valle härad is
mainly built up by glaciofluvial material, with smaller grain sizes westwards. The interpolated
surface is sloping westwards, which indicates that water must have gone in that direction.
This analysis does not prove that Valle härad represents a collapsed outwash surface, but the
resultant slope is consistent with the interpretation. In combination with Strömberg’s (1977)
channels, the surface of Valle härad suggests a time-transgressive, outwash plain formation
on stagnant ice, a plain formed in front of the retreating (and oscillating) ice margin.
10
Hillcrests
The mean orientation of 87 degrees, the rose diagram and the aspect analysis clearly show
that the hillcrests have a preferred orientation and are almost oval or elongated. This would
indicate a controlled deposition. As pointed out before, hummocky topography with this
pattern are believed to have inherited their orientation from the structure and distribution of
the parent ice (Johnson and Clayton, 2003).
Hillcrests have similar orientation as the moraine ridges in west. When it comes to the
hillcrests I interpret this relationship to be caused by ice at the ice-margin. When the active
ice retreats it leaves the stagnant ice to melt, and gives the un-collapsed hillcrests same
orientation as the former ice-margin.
Moraine ridge distribution and suggested ice-margin positions
If any moraine ridge has an expression in Valle härad it would best fit Skånings-Åsaka, which
has relative following ridge topography throughout Valle härad (fig 11). The Kulla ridge
could have an expression with its relative sharp right turn close to Mt Billingen. With the
other ridges it’s unclear if they have any distribution. This analysis does not prove that there
are moraine ridges in Valle härad, only that there are forms and orientations that have an
expression of a ridge.
Maps of moraine ridge distribution, interpret ice-margin and
interpolated surface
Based on the information shown in Figs 6, 7, 8, and 10, I have constructed Fig 11 and fig 12.
Patterns shown by the hillcrests and the mapped end moraine positions are used to draw the
“line of interest” that I suggest may represent topography produced at an ice margin. Both
figures also show light blue lines (some with arrows pointing towards west), representing the
glaciofluvial erosional valleys (Strömberg, 1977).
The “line of interest” is drawn in the same direction as the nearby lying, yellow coloured
“morän”, green points (major elevation points), brown/grey coloured moraine ridges, and on
the north sides of the dead ice crests. Mean orientation of the “line of interest” is 88, 5
degrees. This similar result with the mean orientation of hillcrest is not surprising since the
position is almost set in the same direction as the hillcrests.
The interpolated surface can also be combined with the “line of interest” as in fig 13. As the
two most northerly polylines do a northerly turn, the elevation is rising perpendicular to it.
Why the elevation becomes higher might have to do with the Låstad esker (see fig 1). As the
ice-margin is stagnant, the esker could build up this material perpendicular to the ice-margin
next to Mt Billingen.
11
Fig. 12. This map display the position of the hillcrests, major elevation point used for interprets
the moraine ridge distribution, and the “line of interest” which I interpret to be the ice margin
position.
12
Fig. 13. This map has the same geomorphologic features as in fig 12, but different background.
This background is the interpolated surface. More reddish areas indicate higher elevation.
13
Conclusion
The hillcrests in the area have an overall alignment of east to west. This would indicate a
controlled deposition and the origin of this might be ice structures in the ice at the ice-margin.
Continuation of the forms and orientations of the moraine ridges eastwards in Valle härad is
difficult when making a conclusion. But by seeing the resulting pictures, best expressions are
found east of Skånings-Åsaka and Kulla ridges.
The “line of interest” I interpret to be a line where you might find topography created at an
ice-margin. The “line of interest” has a mean orientation of east to west, which is similar to
the hillcrests orientation and moraine ridges in west.
Acknowledgment
I especially want to thank my supervisor Mark Johnson for supporting my work and for all
theoretical help and explanations. Without Mark´s commitment to this area and its history it
would not had been the same. Thanks for all our interesting discussions.
I would also like to thank Lovise Casserstedt and Cajsa Hermansson for the time we had in
field. I thank Martin Persson and Alexander Walther for helping me with GIS. Not the least I
thank my opponent, Helena Lidhage, for constructive criticism and feedback on my work.
14
References
Andrén, T., Lindeberg, G., & Andrén, E. (2002). Evidence of the final drainage of the baltic
ice lake and the brackish phase of the yoldia sea in glacial varves from the baltic sea. Boreas,
31(3), 226-238.
Benn, D. I., Evans, D. J. A. (2010). Glaciers & glaciation. New York: Hodder Education.
Björck, S. (2008). The late Quaternary development of the Baltic Sea basin. In The BACC
Author Team (Eds.): Assessment of climate change for the Baltic Sea Basin, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 398-407.
Björck, S., & Digerfeldt, G. (1984). Climatic changes at Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in
the Middle Swedish Endmoraine zone, mainly inferred from stratigraphic indications. In (eds.
N.-A. Mörner and W. Karlén) Climatic Changes on a Yearly to Millennial Basis (pp. 37-56).
Reidel: Dordrecht.
Childs, C. (2004, July-September). Interpolation surfaces in arcgis spatial analyst. Retrieved
May 8, 2011: http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0704/files/interpolating.pdf
Evans, D. J. A. (2007) Glacial landforms; moraine forms and genesis. Encyclopedia of
Quaternary science, 1, 772-784.
Johnson, M. D., & Clayton, L. (2003). Supraglacial landsystems in lowland terrain. In Evans,
D. J. A., Glacial landsystems (pp. 228-258). London: Arnold.
Johnson, M. D., Ståhl, Y., Larsson, O., & Seger, S. (2010). New exposures of Baltic ice lake
drainage sediments, Götene, Sweden. GFF, 132(1), 1-12.
Johnson, M. D., & Ståhl, Y. (2010). Stratigraphy, sedimentology, age and palaeoenvironment
of marine varved clay in the middle Swedish end-moraine zone. Boreas, 39(2), 199-214.
Kjær, K. H., & Krüger, J. (2001). The final phase of dead-ice moraine development:
Processes and sediment architecture, Kötlujökull, Iceland. Sedimentology, 48(5), 935-952.
Lantmäteriet. (n.d.). Digitala kartbibloteket. Retrieved 05 12, 2011 from
https://butiken.metria.se/digibib/index.php
Påsse, T., 2006a; Jordartskarta Skara NO. Sveriges Geologiska Undersöknings databas
Strömberg, B. (1977). Deglaciationen vid Billingen och Baltiska issjöns tappning. GFF, 99
(2), 92–95.
Sveriges geologiska undersökning. (n.d.). SGUs karttjänster . Retrieved 05 12, 2011 from
http://www.sgu.se/sgu/sv/produkter-tjanster/kart-tjanst_start.htm
Summerfield, M. A. (1991). Global geomorphology : an introduction to the study of
landforms . Harlow : Longman Scientific & Technical.
Zakšek, K., Podobnikar, T. (2005). An effective DEM generalization with basic GIS
operations. In 8th ICA workshop on Generalisation and Multiple Representation, A Coruna.
15
Appendix
Legend of soil class map
Legend
Valle härad
Punkter, lokal A
Punkter
Blockjord
Vatten, lokal A
Svämsediment
Finsilt--mellansilt (glacial)
Gränser, lokal A
Svämsediment, silt
Grovsilt (glacial)
Blockighet, lokal A
Svämsediment, finsand
Silt--sand (glacial)
Blockighet
Svämsediment, sand
Finsand (glacial)
Blocksänka
Hög blockfrekvens på annan jordart än morän
Svämsediment, grus
Sand (glacial)
Talus
Blockrik moränyta eller blockjord
Svämsediment, sten--block
Isälvssediment, sand--block
Enstaka stort block
Blockrik till storblockig moränyta
Älvsediment
Isälvssediment, finsand
Ka
!
Kaolin
Storblockig moränyta
Älvsediment, silt
Isälvssediment, sand
Ki
!
Kiselgur
Ytlager 1, lokal A
Älvsediment, finsand
Isälvssediment, lerig sand
Kalktuff
Tunt eller osammanhängande ytlager
Älvsediment, sand
Isälvssediment, grus
K
Dyn
Torv
Älvsediment, grus
Isälvssediment, lerig grus
Moränkulle
Flygsand
Älvsediment, sten--block
Isälvssediment, sten--block
Dödisgrop
Svämsediment
Lergyttja--gyttjelera
Moränlera
Slukhål
Lera--silt (postglacial eller glacial)
Lera (postglacial)
Morän, sandig--siltig
l
Rauk
Sand--grus (postglacial)
Lera (postglacial eller glacial)
Morän, lerig sandig--siltig
!
Källa
Svallsediment, grus--block
Lera--silt (postglacial eller glacial)
Morän, sandig eller morän ospec.
Ì
Berg, sedimentärt
Sand--grus (glacial)
Silt (postglacial eller glacial)
Morän, sten--block
Ì
Berg, urberg eller ospec.
Isälvssediment, sand--block
Grovsilt (glacial eller postglacial)
Morän, lerig sandig eller moränlera
Stenbrott, gruva eller bergtäkt
Övrig eller oklassad jord
Silt (postglacial)
Morän, grusig
Grotta
Morän
Lerig grovsilt (postglacial)
Morän, lerig grusig
Jättegryta
Vittringsjord
Finsilt--mellansilt (postglacial)
Morän med sorterade sediment (glacial)
Ó
!
Linjer, lokal A
Landform, lokal A
Grovsilt (postglacial)
Linjer
Landformer
Sand--block (postglacial elller ospec.)
Krön på isälvsavlagring
Flygsand
Moränbacklandskap
Finsand (postglacial)
Talus
Veikilandskap
Lerig finsand (postglacial)
Berg, urberg eller ospec.
Moränrygg
Moränrygg
Sand (postglacial eller ospec.)
Rösberg
Rygg, med innehåll av morän och sorterade sediment
Drumlin
Lerig sand (postglacial eller ospec.)
Berg, sedimentärt
Drumlin
Isälvseroderat område
Grus (postglacial eller ospec.)
Skålla, sedimentärt
Grundlager, lokal A
Sten--block, klapper (postglacial)
Fyllning
Grundlager
Talus
Högsta kustlinjen
> Isälvsränna, > 50 m bred
Sten--block (glacial eller postglacial)
Sankmark (tidvis under vatten)
Skaljord
Okänt
Övergiven älvfåra
Torv (kärr eller ospec.)
Lera (glacial)
Dyn
Gyttja
Silt (glacial)
llllll
Vatten
Djuplager, lokal A
Djuplager
Skredväg
>>>>>
Kalktuff
Torv (mosse)
> Isälvsränna, < 50 m bred
bbbbbbbbbbbbb
Vittringsjord
Blocksänka
Isälvsavlagring
bbbbbbbbbbbbb
555
555
555
Blockjord
KKK K K KK
KKK K K KK
KKK K K KK
KKK K K KK
Skredärr
Torv (mosse)
Dödisgrop / Åsgrav
Torv (kärr eller ospec.)
Strandvall
Gyttja
Ravin
Svämsediment
Kalktuff
Svämsediment, finsand
Berg, sedimentärt
Svämsediment, sand
Berg, urberg eller ospec.
Älvsediment, sand
Postglacial förkastning
Lergyttja--gyttjelera
Stenbrott, gruva eller bergtäkt
Lera (postglacial)
Klint
Lera (postglacial eller glacial)
Raukfält
Lera--silt (postglacial eller glacial)
Övriga terrängbrott och / eller branter
Silt (postglacial eller glacial)
Silt (postglacial)
Grovsilt (postglacial)
Sand--block (postglacial elller ospec.)
Finsand (postglacial)
Sand (postglacial eller ospec.)
Grus (postglacial eller ospec.)
Sten--block, klapper (postglacial)
Lera (glacial)
Silt (glacial)
Finsilt--mellansilt (glacial)
Grovsilt (glacial)
Silt--sand (glacial)
Finsand (glacial)
Sand (glacial)
Isälvssediment, sand--block
Isälvssediment, finsand
Isälvssediment, grus
Isälvssediment, sand
Morän med sorterade sediment (glacial)
Moränlera
Morän, sandig eller morän ospec.
Morän, lerig sandig eller moränlera
Vittringsjord
Berg, sedimentärt
Berg, urberg eller ospec.
16