CLAY BRICKS
Comparison of Stones and Bricks
• Stone
• Bricks
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Natural material
Heavier
High dressing cost
Costly except in hilly areas
Less porous, good for hydraulic
structures
Greater strength
Better heat conductor
Weather resistant
Superior quality stone is
monumental and decorative
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–
–
–
–
Manufactured from clay
Lighter
Moldable to any shape
Cheaper except in hilly areas
More porous, needs water
proof treatment
Reasonable for normal loads
Poor heat conductor
Needs pointing and plastering
Architectural effect is
achievable
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Bricks and Clay Products
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Clay Products
• Clay Products
– Bricks
– Tiles
– Fire clays and fire bricks
– Terracotta
– Earthenware
– Clay pipes
• Bricks
– Block of tampered clay or ceramic material molded
to desired shape and size, sun dried and if required
burnt to make it strong, hard and durable
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Bricks
• Commonly it is rectangular in shape
– Length = twice width of brick + thickness of mortar
– Height = multiple of width of brick
– Usual size available in Pakistan is 8¾ x 4¼ x 2 ¾
inches to make it 9 x 4.5 x 3 inches with mortar
– Indian Standard size 19 x 9 x 9 cm and 19 x 9 x 4
cm to make it 20 x 10 x 10 cm and 20 x 10 x 5 cm
with mortar
• Bricks are most common form of structural clay
products; others being tiles, pipes, terracotta,
earthenware, stoneware, porcelain, and
majolica
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Historical Development
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Began as low walls of stones or caked mud
Sun-dried bricks - With the availability of fire became burnt
bricks
Invention of kilns made mass production of bricks easy
Limestone turned into lime mortar replaced mud as mortar
In Mesopotamia, palaces and temples were built of stone and
sun-dried bricks in 4000 B.C.
The Egyptians erected their temples and pyramids of stones by
3000 B.C.
By 300 B.C., Greeks perfected their temples of limestone and
marble
Romans made the first large-scale use of masonry arches and
roof vaults in their basilica, baths and aqueducts
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Historical Development
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Medieval and Islamic civilizations perfected masonry vaulting
to a high degree of development - Islamic craftsmen built
palaces, markets, and mosques of bricks and often faced them
with brightly glazed tiles
Europeans built fortresses and cathedrals using pointed vaults
and flying buttresses
In America and Asia other cultures were building with stones
During industrial revolution, machines were developed to quarry
and cut stones, mould bricks, and speed the transportation of
these materials to site of building
Portland cement came into wide use and this enabled the
construction of masonry building of greater strength and
durability
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Historical Development
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Late in 19th century tall buildings were built, of steel and
reinforced concrete (pored into simple forms), economically
Development of hollow concrete forms in 19th century averted
the extinction of masonry as a building material - Cavity wall,
developed by the British during the earlier part of the 19th
century also contributed to the survival of masonry as a building
material
This facilitated the introduction of thermal insulation
High strength mortars, high-strength masonry units, and
complex shapes of masonry units extended the use of masonry
for buildings
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Historical Development
• Through the mid-1800s
– Primary Building Materials
• Late 1800s
– New Products Developed
– Ended Masonry’s Dominance
• 20th Century Developments
– Steel Reinforced Masonry
– High Strength Mortars
– High Strength Masonry Units
– Variety of Sizes, Colors, Textures & Coatings
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Adobe
• Spanish-American name applied to sun-dried
brick and to the clay soil from which the brick is
made
• Adobe soil is composed of very fine mixture of
clay, quartz, and other minerals
• Adobe soil has great plasticity when moist, but
when dry is so coherent that tillage is almost
impossible
• Soil is used combined with straw, molded and
baked in sun for 7 to 14 days
• Used in regions of low rainfall and dampness
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Civil Engineering Uses
• Construction of exterior and interior walls,
partitions and boundary walls
• Construction of piers, abutments
• Construction of footings
• Construction of miscellaneous load
bearing structures
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Classification of Bricks
Bricks
Sun Dried
Katcha
Un Burnt
Practice
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Burnt
Pucca
Usage
Finish
Manufacture
Burning
Strength
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Classification of Bricks
• Sun Dried, Un-burnt or Kacha Bricks
– After molding dried in sun, and are used in
the construction of temporary structures
which are not exposed to rains.
• Burnt or Pucca Bricks
– Burnt in an oven called kiln to provide
strength and durability
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
Burnt
Bricks
Practice
Usage
Finish
Manufacture
Burning
Strength
1st Class
Common
Brick
Sand
Faced
Hand
Made
Pale Bricks
Under Burnt
Class A
2nd Class
Facing
Brick
Rustic
Machine
Made
Body Bricks
Well Burnt
Class B
3rd Class
Engg
Brick
Arch Bricks
Over Burnt
Classes
350 to 35
4th Class
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
Field Practice
• First Class Bricks
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Thoroughly burnt, deep red, cherry or copper color
Straight edges, square corners, smooth surface
Free from flaws, cracks, stones and nodules
Uniform texture & ringing sound
No scratch marks with fingernails
Water absorption 12-15% of dry weight in 24 hours
May have only slight efflorescence
Crushing strength not less than 10.5 N/mm2
Recommended for pointing, exposed face work, flooring and
reinforced brick work
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
Field Practice
• Second Class Bricks
–
–
–
–
Small cracks and distortions permitted
Water absorption 16-20% of dry weight allowed
Crushing strength not less than 7.0 N/mm2
Recommended for all hidden work and centering of RBC
• Third Class Bricks, Pilla Bricks
– Under burnt, Soft and light colored producing dull sound
– Water absorption 25% of dry weight
– Recommended for temporary structures
• Fourth Class Bricks, Jhama, Khingar
– Over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size
– Brittle in nature
– Ballast of these bricks used for foundation and floors and as
road metal
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
Strength Based
• Classes
– 350 (35 N/mm2)
– 300 (30 N/mm2)
– 250 (25 N/mm2)
– 200 (20 N/mm2)
– 175 (17.5 N/mm2)
– 150 (15 N/mm2)
125 (12.5 N/mm2)
100 (10 N/mm2)
75 (7.5 N/mm2)
50 (5 N/mm2)
25 (2.5 N/mm2)
• Sub Classes
– Subclass A. Tolerance 0.3% in dimensions
– Subclass B. Tolerance 0.8% in dimensions
• Heavy Duty. Compressive strength > 40 N/mm2
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
• Basis of Usage
– Common Brick. General multi-purpose
– Facing Brick. Good appearance, color, textured,
durable under severe exposure
– Engineering Bricks. Strong, impermeable, smooth
and hard
• Basis of Finish
– Sand Faced Brick. Textured surface by sprinkling
sand inside mold
– Rustic. Mechanically textured finish
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Classification of Burnt Bricks
• Basis of manufacturing method
– Hand Made. Hand molded
– Machine Made. Wire cut, pressed and
molded bricks
• Basis of Burning
– Pale Bricks are under burnt
– Body Bricks are well burnt in central portion
of kiln
– Arch Bricks are over burnt. Also called clinker
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Comparison of Stones and Bricks
• Stone
• Bricks
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Natural material
Heavier
High dressing cost
Costly except in hilly areas
Less porous, good for hydraulic
structures
Greater strength
Better heat conductor
Weather resistant
Superior quality stone is
monumental and decorative
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–
–
–
–
Manufactured from clay
Lighter
Moldable to any shape
Cheaper except in hilly areas
More porous, needs water
proof treatment
Reasonable for normal loads
Poor heat conductor
Needs pointing and plastering
Architectural effect is
achievable
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Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
• Brick earth is formed by the disintegration of igneous
rocks. Potash feldspars, orthoclase or microcline yield
clay minerals which decompose to yield kaolinite, a
silicate of alumina. On hydration it gives a clay deposit
Al2O3. 2H2O called kaolin.
• Alumina or clay
20-30% by weight
• Silica or sand
35-50% by weight
• Silt
20-35% by weight
• Remaining ingredients 1-2% by weight
–
–
–
–
Lime (CaO)
Magnesia (MgO)
Iron oxides
Alkalis (Sodium potash, etc)
• Water
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Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
• Silica, Sand – Present as free sand or silicate.
Its presence in clay produces hardness,
resistance to heat, durability and prevents
shrinkage and warping.
• Alumina – Fine grained mineral compound.
Moldable plastic when wet, becomes hard,
shrinks, warps and cracks when dry.
• Lime – Acts as binder for brick particles.
Reduces shrinkage when present in small
amount, excess causes the brick to melt and
lose shape.
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Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
• Magnesia – Provides darker yellow color
with iron. Usually less than 1%.
• Iron Oxide – Helps fusion of brick and
provides light yellow to red color to brick.
Should not be present as iron pyrites
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Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
• Harmful Substances
– Lime in excess or in lumps and pebbles, gravel, etc
– Iron Pyrites
– Alkalis in excess
– Organic Matter
– Carbonaceous Materials
• Additives
– Fly Ash – silicates help in strength development
– Sandy Loam – controls drying of plastic soil
– Rice Husk Ash – controls excessive shrinkage
– Basalt Stone Dust – modifies shaping, drying &
firing
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Operations in Manufacturing of Bricks
• Preparation of Brick Earth
– Un-soiling
– Digging
– Weathering
– Blending
– Tempering
• Molding of Bricks
• Drying of Bricks
• Burning of Bricks
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Preparation of Brick Earth
• Un-soiling – Removal of top 20 cm organic matter and
freeing from gravel, coarse sand, lime etc
• Digging – additives spread, soil excavated, puddled,
watered and left over for weathering
• Weathering – heaps left for one month for oxidation
and washing away of excessive salts in rain
• Blending – sandy earth and calcareous earth mixed in
right proportions with right amount of water
• Tempering – kneading of blended soil with feet or with
a pug mill to improve plasticity and homogeneity
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Pug Mill
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Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
• Molding – giving right shape
– Hand molding
• Ground molding. Molded on sand. No frog in bricks
• Table molding. Molded on stock boards with frog
– Machine molding
• Plastic method or Stiff-Mud process. Molded stiff clay bar
cut by wire into brick size pieces. Structural clay products
• Dry Press method. Moist powdered clay fed into machine
to be molded into bricks. Roof, floor and wall tiles
• Drying – Removing 7-30% moisture present
during molding stage. This controls shrinkage,
fuel and burning time. Natural open air driers in
shades
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Brick Molds
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Table Molding
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Plastic Molding
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Strikes
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Extruded – Wire Cut
Wood Mold
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Extruded – Smooth
Extruded – Raked
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Method
of Drying
Bricks
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Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
• Burning Stages
– Dehydration (400-650 °C). Water smoking stage in
which water from pores driven off
– Oxidation (650-900 °C). Carbon eliminated and
ferrous iron oxidized to ferric form. Sulphur is
removed
– Vitrification (900-1250 °C). Mass converted into
glass like substance
• Incipient vitrification. Clay just softens to adherence
• Complete vitrification. Maximum shrinkage
• Viscous vitrification. Soft molten mass, loss in shape, glossy
structure on cooling
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Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
• Clamp or Pazawah Burning
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–
–
–
Alternate layers of bricks and fuel encased in mud plaster.
Fuel consists of grass, cow dung, litter, wood, coal dust
Brick layer consists of four to five courses of brick
25,000 to 100,000 bricks in three months cycle
• Kiln Burning
– Intermittent kiln. Loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded before
next loading
– Continuous kiln. Bricks are loaded, fired, dried and cooled
simultaneously in different chambers. Example: Bull’s trench
kiln and Hoffman’s kiln
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Clamp of
Pazawah
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Intermittent
Kiln
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Hoffman’s
Continuous
Kiln
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Bull’s Trench Kiln
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Bull’s
Trench
Kiln
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Characteristics of Good Bricks
• Size and shape – uniform size, rectangular
surfaces, parallel sides, sharp straight edges
• Color – uniform deep red or cherry
• Texture and compactness – uniform texture,
fractured surface should not show fissures,
holes, grits or lumps of lime
• Hardness and soundness – not scratch able by
finger nail. Produce metallic ringing sound
• Water absorption – should not exceed 20% wt
• Crushing strength – not less than 10.5 N/mm2
• Brick earth – free from stones, organic matter
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Miscellaneous Brick Types
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Heavy duty bricks
Perforated bricks
Paving bricks
Soling bricks
Hollow bricks
Jalis
Clay tiles
Fire-clay or refractory bricks
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a. Round ended
brick
b. Cant brick
c. Splay brick
d. Cornice brick
Special
Forms
of
Bricks
e. Compass brick
f. Bull nosed brick
g. Perforated brick
h. Hollow brick
i. Coping brick
j. Plinth level brick
k. Split brick (Queen
closer)
l. Split brick (King
closer)
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Specially Shaped Bricks
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Testing of Bricks
• Dimension Test. Sample size 50. 20 pieces
selected to determine length, width and height
tolerances.
• Compressive strength Test. Sample prepared
from smooth, parallel face, brick is soaked 24
hours and stored under damp jute bags for 24
hours followed by further immersion in water for
three days. Load applied @ 14 N/mm per
minute till failure. Maximum load at failure
divided by average area of bed face gives
compressive strength.
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Testing of Bricks
• Absorption Test.
– 24 hours immersion cold water test.
•
•
•
•
•
Dry bricks oven dried at 105° ± 5° C
Room temperature cooled bricks weighed W1
Bricks immersed in water at 27° ± 2° C for 24 hrs
Soaked bricks weighed W2
Water absorption in % = (W2 – W1)/W1 x 100
– Five hours boiling water test
• Oven dried bricks weight W1
• Bricks immersed in water and boiled for 5 hours and then
cooled down at room temperature in 16-19 hours
• Cooled down weight as W3
• Water absorption in % = (W3 – W1)/W1 x 100
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Testing of Bricks
• Warping Test. 10 bricks sample is used.
– Concave warping
– Convex warping
• Efflorescence Test. Ends of brick kept in 150 mm dia
porcelain/glass dish containing 25 mm deep water at
20°–30°C till all water is absorbed
–
–
–
–
–
Nil
Slight
Moderate
Heavy
Serious
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imperceptible efflorescence
deposit covers area < 10% of exposed area
deposit covers exposed area 10% to 50%
deposit covers exposed area > 50%
deposits are heavy and powder or flake away
the surface
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Defects of Bricks
• Over-burning. Burnt beyond complete vitrification
• Under-burning. Burnt less not to cause complete vitrification
• Bloating. Spongy swollen mass over the surface due to excess
carbonaceous matter and sulphur
• Black Core. Due to bituminous matter or carbon
• Efflorescence. Grey of white crystallization of alkalis on the
surface, due to water absorption
• Chuffs. Deformation due to rainwater falling or hot bricks
• Checks or Cracks. Due to lumps of lime getting in contact with
water
• Spots. Dark sulphur spots due to iron sulphides
• Blisters. Broken blisters due to air entrapped during molding
• Laminations. Thin lamina produced due to air entrapped in
voids of clay
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Miscellaneous Clay Products
• Terracotta. Ornamental, impervious, hard clay
– Porous terracotta. Clay plus sawdust or cork
– Polished terracotta. Glazed architectural clay
• Porcelain. High grade, white, zero water absorption and glazed
material of clay, kaolin, quartz and feldspar
– Soft porcelain
– Hard porcelain
• Stoneware. Colored porcelain with silica and alumina. Flooring
tiles
• Earthenware. Drain pipes, lavatory fittings, light partition walls
• Majolica. Italian earthenware coated with opaque white enamel,
ornamented with metallic colors
• Glazing
– Transparent glazing. Sodium chloride used while burning
– Lead glazing. Burned items dipped in lead oxide solution
– Opaque glazing. Borax, kaolin, chalk, color, feldspar and lead oxide fired.
Resulting molten glass poured in water to give shattered look
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Brick Masonry
• Brick sides
– Header
– Stretcher
• Brick Bonds
– English
• Brick Masonry Patterns
– Checker
– Herringbone
– Basket weave
– Flemish
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Basic Brickwork Terminology
Head
Joint
Bed
Joint
Course - horizontal layer of brick
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Basic Brickwork Terminology
Header - Bonds two wythes together
Wythe: vertical layer 1 unit thick
Rowlock laid on face,
end visible
Stretcher - long dimension horizontal
& face parallel to the wall
Soldier - Laid on its end, face parallel
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Joint Color that “Blends” w/ Brick Color
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Concave Joints
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Raked Joints
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Simulated Precast Concrete Lintel
(actually a steel lintel supports the assembly)
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Arch
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BRICK’S BONDING
Stretcher Bond
English Bond
Flemish Bond
Raking Bond
English Garden Wall Bond
Common / American Bond
Flemish Garden Wall Bond
Running Bond
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Flemish Bond
Alternate bricks are placed as header and
stretcher in
every course. Each header is placed
centrally between
the
stretcher
immediately
above
and
below.
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English Bond
Alternative courses of headers and stretchers;
one
header placed centrally above each stretcher.
This is a very strong bond when the wall is 1
brick thick
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Stretcher Bond
Easiest bond to lay & minimizes the amount of
cutting
required
Originally used for single brick walls, now
called
1/2
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Raking Bond
Herringbone and diagonal bonds can be
effective
within an exposed framed construction, or
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English Garden Wall Bond
An alternative version of English bond with
header
courses being inserted at every fourth or
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sixth course.
71
English Garden Wall Bond
An alternative version of English bond with
header
courses being inserted at every fourth or
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Common / American Bond
A brickwork pattern in which all rows are
stretchers,
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Flemish Garden Wall Bond
In this variant of Flemish bond, one header
is placed
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Running Bond
Consist of all stretchers
No header used in this bond so metal ties
are
used
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Herringbone Bond
It is a purely decorative bond.
It
is
used
in
floor
and
wall
panels.
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CAVITY WALL
“A wall constructed in 2 leaves / skins
with a
space / cavity between them”
“A type of building wall construction
consisting of an outer wall fastened
to inner
wall separated by an air space”
FUNCTION
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Cavity Wall
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WALL FAILURE
• Vertical bowing and horizontal bending
or
collapse of wall is usually caused by
the wall
not resisting vertical pressures from
foundation
or upper floors & roofs or horizontal
pressures
from strong winds and retained earth.
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• Usual cause for failure of wall are as
follows:
- Overloading the wall, deflection of
beam
above the wall will effect the wall
below.
- Foundation failure
- Earthquake
- Timber pest damage weakened the
timber
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• Brick Wall Crack
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• Brick Wall Failure At The Roof Level
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• Cracked Wall
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• Failure In Brick Wall
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Wall Failure Due To
Earthquake
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Specially Shaped Bricks
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