Database Security
Karen Gilmer
Kyle Thompson
Database Security
• Protection from malicious attempts to steal
(view) or modify data.
• The mechanism that protect the database
against intentional or accidental threats.
▫ Threat: Any situation or event, whether
intentional or accidental, that may adversely affect
a system & consequently the organization
Importance of Data
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Bank accounts
Credit card, Salary, Income tax data, address
University admissions, marks/grades
Land records, licenses
Recent headlines:
▫ Personal information of millions of credit card users stolen
 Laws on privacy in the US
 Theft of US data in India
▫ Earlier this year in South Carolina
 More than 3.3 million unencrypted bank account numbers and 3.8 million tax
returns were stolen from Department of Revenue
Why is Security Important?
• Security problems are real
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Over 52 Million people impacted in past years
Veterans Administration - 26.5 million veterans impacted
UCLA
- 800,000 students, parents, faculty
ChoicePoint
- 145,000 people impacted
Las Vegas DMV
- 8,900 drivers impacted
B of A
- 1.2 million federal employees impacted
GAP
- 800,000 job applicants information
• Regulatory Compliance is a global concern
• Bar is continually being raised – and legislated
• Cost of security breaches escalating
Types of Security
• Threats to databases
▫ Loss of integrity
▫ Loss of availability
▫ Loss of confidentiality
Security Countermeasures
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Access Control & Authentication/Authorization
Auditing
Encryption
Backups
Application Security
• Access Control: provisions for restricting access to the
database as a whole by creating user accounts and passwords
to control login process by the DBMS
• Inference Control: associated with controlling the access to
a statistical database, which is used to provide statistical
information or summaries of values based on various criteria.
• Flow Control: prevents information from flowing in such a
way that it reaches unauthorized users
▫ Channels that are pathways for information to flow implicitly in ways
that violate the security policy of an organization are called covert
channels.
• Encryption: data is encoded using some encoding algorithm
to protect sensitive data (credit card numbers) that is being
transmitted via some type communication network
Access Protection
• The DBA account in the DBMS - Sometimes called a
system or superuser account
▫ These accounts provide powerful capabilities such as:
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1. Account creation
2. Privilege granting “GRANT”
3. Privilege revocation “REVOKE”
4. Security level assignment
Closed Vs Open Systems
Closed Systems
Some DBMS required authorization for
authorized DBMS users to access specific
objects.
Open Systems
Allow users to have complete access to all
objects within the database.
Security at the
Database/Application Program
• Authentication and
authorization
mechanisms to allow
specific users access
only to required data
• Authentication: who
are you? Prove it!
• Authorization: what
you are allowed to do
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Authorization
Forms of authorization on (parts of) the database:
• Read authorization - allows reading, but
not modification of data.
• Insert authorization - allows insertion of new
data, but not modification of existing data.
• Update authorization - allows modification,
but not deletion of data.
• Delete authorization - allows deletion of data
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Database vs. Application
• Application authenticates/authorizes users
• Application itself authenticates itself to database
▫ Database password
Application
Program
Database
Auditing
• The database system must keep track of all
operations on the database that are applied by a
certain user throughout each login session.
▫ To keep a record of all updates applied to the database and of
the particular user who applied each update, we can modify
system log, which includes an entry for each operation
applied to the database that may be required for recovery from
a transaction failure or system crash.
▫ A database audit can be performed if any tampering with the
database is suspected
Backup
• Copying and archiving of computer data so it
may be used to restore the original after a data
loss event.
• Purpose is to recover data after it is lost from
corruption or deletion.
• Second purpose is to recover data from an
earlier time.
Encryption
• Encryption is a means of maintaining secure data in an insecure
environment.
• Encryption consists of applying an encryption algorithm to
data using some specified encryption key.
• The resulting data has to be decrypted using a decryption key to
recover the original data.
Encryption Methods - DES
• The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a system developed by
the U.S. government for use by the general public.
▫ It has been widely accepted as a cryptographic standard both in the
United States and abroad.
▫ DES can provide end-to-end encryption on the channel between the
sender A and receiver B.
• DES algorithm is a careful and complex combination of two of the
fundamental building blocks of encryption:
▫ substitution and permutation (transposition).
• The DES algorithm derives its strength from repeated application of
these two techniques for a total of 16 cycles.
▫ Plaintext (the original form of the message) is encrypted as blocks of
64 bits.
Encryption Methods - AES
• After questioning the adequacy of DES, the
National Institute of Standards (NIST)
introduced the Advanced Encryption Standards
(AES).
▫ This algorithm has a block size of 128 bits and
thus takes longer time to crack.
Encryption Methods – Public Key
• Public key algorithms are based on mathematical functions
rather than operations on bit patterns.
▫ They also involve the use of two separate keys
 in contrast to conventional encryption, which uses only one key.
• The two keys used for public key encryption are referred to as the
public key and the private key.
▫ the private key is kept secret, but it is referred to as private key rather
than a secret key
• The essential steps are as follows:
▫ Each user generates a pair of keys to be used for the encryption and
decryption
▫ Each user places one of the two keys in a public register or other accessible
file. This is the public key. The companion key is kept private (private
key).
▫ If a sender wishes to send a private message to a receiver, the sender
encrypts the message using the receiver’s public key.
▫ The receiver decrypts the message using the receiver’s private key.
 No other recipient can decrypt the message because only the receiver
knows his or her private key.
Encryption Methods – Public Key
• The RSA Public Key Encryption algorithm - one of the first
public key schemes was introduced in 1978
▫ The RSA algorithm operates with modular arithmetic – mod n, where
n is the product of two large prime numbers.
• Two keys, d and e, are used for decryption and encryption.
▫ An important property is that d and e can be interchanged.
▫ n is chosen as a large integer that is a product of two large distinct prime
numbers, a and b.
▫ The encryption key e is a randomly chosen number between 1 and n that is
relatively prime to (a-1) x (b-1).
▫ The plaintext block P is encrypted as Pe mod n.
▫ Because the exponentiation is performed mod n, factoring Pe to uncover the
encrypted plaintext is difficult.
▫ The decryption key d is carefully chosen so that (Pe)d mod n = P.
▫ The decryption key d can be computed from the condition that
d x e= 1 mod ((a-1)x(b-1)).
▫ Thus, the legitimate receiver who knows d simply computes
(Pe)d mod n = P and recovers P without having to factor Pe .
DBMS Security Mechanisms
• A DBMS typically includes a database security
and authorization subsystem that is responsible
for ensuring the security portions of a database
against unauthorized access.
• Two types of database security mechanisms:
▫ Discretionary security mechanisms
▫ Mandatory security mechanisms
Discretionary Access Protection
• The typical method of enforcing discretionary access
control in a database system is based on the granting
and revoking privileges.
• The account level:
▫ At this level, the DBA specifies the particular privileges that
each account holds independently of the relations in the
database.
▫ Privileges: CREATE SCHEMA, CREATE TABLE, CREATE
VIEW, ALTER, DROP, MODIFY, SELECT
• The relation level (or table level):
▫ At this level, the DBA can control the privilege to access
each individual relation or view in the database.
▫ Read/Write/ Update Matrix M(i,j)
Inference Control
• For example, we may want to retrieve the number of
individuals in a population or the average income in
the population – This is considered a statistical query
▫ However, statistical users are not allowed to retrieve
individual data, such as the income of a specific person.
• Statistical database security techniques must prohibit
the retrieval of individual data.
• This can be achieved by prohibiting queries that retrieve
attribute values and by allowing only queries that involve
statistical aggregate functions such as COUNT, SUM,
MIN, MAX, AVERAGE, and STANDARD DEVIATION.
Flow Control
• Flow control regulates the distribution or flow of
information among accessible objects.
• A flow between object X and object Y occurs when a
program reads values from X and writes values into Y.
▫ Flow controls check that information contained in some
objects does not flow explicitly or implicitly into less
protected objects.
• A flow policy specifies the channels along which
information is allowed to move.
▫ The simplest flow policy specifies just two classes of
information:
 confidential (C) and nonconfidential (N)
▫ and allows all flows except those from class C to class N
Flow Control & Covert Channels
• A covert channel allows a transfer of information that
violates the security or the policy.
▫ allows information to pass from a higher classification level to a
lower classification level through improper means.
• Covert channels can be classified into two broad categories:
▫ Storage channels do not require any temporal synchronization,
in that information is conveyed by accessing system information
or what is otherwise inaccessible to the user.
▫ Timing channel allow the information to be conveyed by the
timing of events or processes.
• Some security experts believe that one way to avoid covert
channels is for programmers to not actually gain access to
sensitive data that a program is supposed to process after the
program has been put into operation.
RAID
(Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
The hardware that the DBMS is running on must
be fault-tolerant, meaning that the DBMS should
continue to operate even if one of the hardware
components fails.
RAID (Cont)
RAID works on having a large disk array
comprising an arrangement of several
independent disks that are organized to improve
reliability and at the same time increase
performance.
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SQL Injections
• E.g. application takes accnt_number as input from user
and creates an SQL query as follows:
▫ string query = "select balance from account where
account_number =‘" + accnt_number +"‘"
▫ Suppose instead of a valid account number, user types in
 ‘; delete from r;
then (oops!) the query becomes
select balance from account where account_number =‘ ‘; delete from r;
• Hackers can probe for SQL injection vulnerability by
typing, e.g. ‘*** in an input box
▫ Tools can probe for vulnerability
▫ Error messages can reveal information to hacker
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Passwords in Scripts
• E.g.: file1.jsp (or java or other source file) located in
publicly accessible area of web server
▫ Intruder looks for http://<urlpath>/file1.jsp~
 or .jsp.swp, etc
▫ If jsp has database userid/password in clear text, big trouble
 Happened at IITB
• Morals
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Never store scripts (java/jsp) in an area accessible to http
Never store passwords in scripts, keep them in config files
Never store config files in any web-accessible areas
Restrict database access to only trusted clients
 At port level, or using database provided functionality
References
• Elmasri & Navathe - Fundamentals of Database
Systems
• Bertino, E-Database Security- Concepts,
approaches, and challenges
• Hugo Shebbeare-Database Security Best
Practices for the Vigilant Database
Administrator and Developer
• http://www.mcafee.com/us/products/databasesecurity/index.asp- Database Security