Job Design, Work Measurement and Labor Standards
Eng. R. L. Nkumbwa™ www.nkumbwa.weebly.com
© 2010 Nkumbwa™. All Rights Reserved.
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Job Design
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Job specialization
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Job expansion
Psychological components
Self-directed teams
Motivation and incentive systems
Ergonomics and work methods
Work Measurement
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Time Studies
Work Sampling
Labor Standards
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Specifying the tasks that make up a job for an individual or group
Involves determining
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What is to be done (i.e., responses)
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How it is to be done (i.e., tools etc.)
Why it is to be done (i.e., purpose)
Results in job description
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Shows nature of job in task-related behaviors
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Specify
 who can do what
 when they can do it
 under what conditions they can do it
Occasionally the result of union pressure
Restricts flexibility in assignments; consequently restricts efficiency of production
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Standard work schedule
 five eight-hour days
Flex-time
 allows employees, within prescribed limits, to determine their own schedules
Flexible work week
 four 10-hour days
Part-time
 less than eight hours per day, or an irregular schedule
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Job specialization
Job expansion
Psychological components
Self-directed teams
Motivation and incentive systems
Ergonomics and work methods
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Involves
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Breaking jobs into small component parts
Assigning specialists to do each part
First noted by Adam Smith (1776)
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Observed how workers in pin factory divided tasks into smaller components
Found in manufacturing & service industries
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Greater dexterity & faster learning
Less lost time changing jobs or tools
Use of more specialized tools
Pay only for needed skills
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Process of adding more variety to jobs
Intended to reduce boredom associated with labor specialization
Methods
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Job enlargement
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Job enrichment
Job rotation
Employee empowerment
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© 1995
Corel Corp.
© 1995 Corel
Corp.
© 1995
Corel
Corp.
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Employee Empowerment
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Psychological Components of Job Design
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Individuals have values, attitudes, and emotions that affect job results
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Example: Work is a social experience that affects belonging needs
Effective worker behavior comes mostly from within the individual
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Scientific management argued for external financial rewards
First examined in ‘Hawthorne studies’
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Conducted in late 1920’s
Western Electric Hawthorne plant
Showed importance of the individual in the workplace
Showed the presence of a social system in the workplace
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Originally intended to examine effects of lighting on productivity
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Scientific management proposed that physical conditions affect productivity
Result: Productivity increased regardless of lighting level
Conclusion: Increased productivity was due to workers’ receiving attention
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Examined effects of group piecework pay system on productivity
Workers under piecework system should produce as much as possible
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Scientific management assumes that people are motivated only by money
Result: Production less than maximum
Conclusion: Social pressure caused workers to produce at group-norm level
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Group of empowered individuals working together for a common goal
May be organized for short-term or long-term objectives
Reasons for effectiveness
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Provide employee empowerment
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Provide core job characteristics
Meet psychological needs (e.g., belonging)
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Self-directed
Teams
Empowerment
Enrichment
Increasing reliance on employees’ contribution and increasing acceptance of responsibility by employee
Enlargement
Specialization
Job Expansion
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Skill variety
Job identify
Job significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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Worker performance depends on
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Motivation
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Ability
Work environment
Motivation is the set of forces that compel behavior
Money may serve as a psychological & financial motivator
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Taylor’s scientific management (1911)
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Workers are motivated mainly by money
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Suggested piece-rate system
Maslow’s theory (1943)
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People are motivated by hierarchy of needs, which includes money
Herzberg (1959)
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Money either dissatisfies or is neutral in its effect
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Bonuses: Cash & stock options
Profit sharing: Distribution of profits
Gain sharing: Reward for company performance (e.g., cost reduction)
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Scanlon plan is most popular (cost reduction.)
Incentive systems
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Measured daywork: Pay based on standard time
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Piece rate: Pay based on pieces done
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Self-Actualization
Use of abilities
Self-fulfillment
Ego
Self Respect
Social
Group Interaction
Job Status
Safety
Physical Safety
Job Security
Physiology
Food
Shelter
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Job Dissatisfiers
(Hygiene)
 Company policies and administration
 Supervision - technical
 Working conditions
 Interpersonal relations - supervision
 Status
 Job security
 Salary
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Job Satisfiers
(Motivators)
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Advancement
 Work itself
 Responsibility
 Personal growth
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Core Job Characteristics 
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Motivation
Satisfaction
Job performance
Absenteeism & turnover
Psychological States
Personal & Work
Outcomes
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Hackman & Oldham
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Worker performance depends on
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Motivation
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Ability
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Work environment
Foundation laid by Frederick Taylor
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Match employees to task
Develop work methods
Establish work standards
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Study of work
Also called ‘human factors’
Involves human-machine interface
Examples
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Mouse
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Keyboard
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Focuses on how task is performed
Used to analyze
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Movement of body, people, or material
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Activities of people & machines
Tools
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Process chart
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Flow diagram
Activity chart
Operations chart (right-hand, left-hand)
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Movement of individuals or materials (Flow diagrams or process charts)
Activity of human and machine and crew activity (Activity charts)
Body movement (primarily hands) (Micro-motion charts)
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Uses low-cost visual devices to share information quickly and accurately.
Displays and graphs replace paper
Provides real-time information
System should focus on improvement, not merely monitoring
Can provide both production and financial data
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Determining the amount of worker time required to generate one unit of output
Provides labor standards
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Target amount of time required to perform a job under normal working conditions
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Labor standards are based on observing worker doing task
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Observe only a sample of work
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Use average time & pace to set standard
Disadvantages
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Requires a trained & experienced analyst
Standard cannot be set before task is performed
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define the task to be studied (after a methods analysis)
Break down the task into precise elements
Decide how many times each element of the task must be measured
Record the times and ratings of performance for the task elements
Compute the average observed cycle time (element times adjusted for unusual influences)
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6.
Compute the normal time for each task element:
Normal time = ( Average actual cycle time ) x ( Rating factor )
7.
Sum the normal times for each element to develop a total normal time for the task
8.
Compute the standard time:
Standard time =
Total normal time
1- Allowance factor
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Personal time allowance - 4% - 7% of total time - use of restroom, water fountain, etc.
Delay allowance - based upon actual delays that occur
Fatigue allowance - to compensate for physical or mental strain, noise level, tediousness, heat and humidity, assumption of an abnormal position, etc.
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Rest Allowances (%) for Various Classes of Work
1. Constant allowance
(a) Personal allowance
……………...
(b) Basic fatigue allowance
…………
2.Variable allowances:
(A) Standing allowance
……………..
(B) Abnormal position
(I) Awkward (bending) ………….
(ii) Very awkward (lying, stretching)
……………………..
(C) Use of force or muscular energy in lifting, pulling, pushing
Weight lifted (pounds)
20 …………………………………
40………………………………….
60………………………………….
3
9
17
2
2
7
5
4
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Rest Allowances (%) for Various Classes of Work
(D) Bad light
(i) Well below recommended …..
(ii) Quite inadequate …………….
(E) Atmospheric conditions (heat and humidity)
Variable …………………………..
(F) Close attention
(i) Fine or exacting ………………
(ii)Very fine or very exacting …...
(G) Noise level
(i) Intermittent – loud ……………
(ii) Intermittent – very loud or high-pitched
1-10
2
5
2
5
5
2
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(H) Mental strain
(i) Complex or wide span of attention ………………………
(ii) Very complex …………….
(I) Tediousness
(i) Tedious …………………….
(ii) Very tedious ……………… 2
5
4
4
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zs

Sample size , n
 h x h = accuracy level desired as percent of job element, expressed as a decimal (5% = 0.05) z = number of standard deviations required for the desired level of confidence s = standard deviation of the initial sample x = mean of the initial sample
Note : s 
  x i
 x

2 n

1
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Considerations in Determining Sample Size
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How accurate do you want to be?
What level of confidence do you want your measurements to have?
How much variation exists within the job elements?
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99.0
Desired Confidence
Level (%)
90.11
95.00
95.45
99.11
99.73
Z Value
1.65
1.96
2.00
2.58
3.00
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Allowance factor =
Nonwork time
Total time
Average element time =
 Element times
Number of cycles
Normal time = Average element time * Perf. Rating
Standard time =
Total normal time
1 - Allowance factor
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42

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Labor standards are set from times in published tables (e.g.,
MTM Table)
Procedure
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Divide manual work into basic elements
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Look up basic element times in table; sum
Advantages
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Times established in laboratory setting
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Useful for planning tasks
Widely accepted by unions
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Time TMU
Distance
Moved (in)
3/4 or less
1
2
A B
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
4.0
4.0
C
2.0
3.6
5.9
A Reach to object in fixed location.
B Reach to object in variable locations.
C Reach to object jumbled with others.
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1.6
2.3
3.5
Hand in
Motion
A B
1.6
2.3
2.7
1 TMU = .0006 minutes
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MTM-HC Analysis: Pouring Tube Specimen
Element Description
Get tube from rack
Get stopper, place on counter
Element Time
AA2 35
AA2 35
AD2 45 Get centrifuge tube, place at sample tube
Pour (3 sec.)
Place tubes in rack (simo)
0.0006*238=Total standard minutes = 0.14
PT
PC2
Total
TMU
83
40
238
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46

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Labor standard is set using output and % of time worker spends on tasks
Involves observing worker at random times over a long period
Advantages
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Less expensive than time studies
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Observer requires little training
Disadvantages
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Ineffective with short cycles
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Used for
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Ratio delay studies
Setting labor standards
Measuring worker performance
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48

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Take a preliminary sample to obtain an estimate of the parameter value
Compute the sample size required
Prepare a schedule for observing the worker at appropriate times
Observe and record worker activities; rate worker performance
Determine how workers spend their time (usually as a percent)
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49

n
 z
 p
   p

 h p = estimated value of sample proportion (of time worker is observed busy or idle) h = accuracy level desired in percent, expressed as a decimal
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50

Normal Time =
Standard Time =
(Total Time) (% of time working) (Rating)
Number of units Produced
Normal Time
1 - Allowance
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51

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Costing labor content of products
Planning staffing needs
Cost & time estimates for bids
Planning production
Wage-incentive plans
Employee efficiency
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52

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Historical experience
Time studies
Predetermined time standards (MTM)
Work sampling
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53

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Labor standards are based on how many labor-hours were needed in past
Least preferred method
Advantages
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Easy and inexpensive to obtain standard
Disadvantages
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Unknown accuracy due to unusual occurrences, unknown pace etc.
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Costing labor content of products
Planning staffing needs
Estimating time and cost for bids
Planning production (crew size and work balance)
Estimating expected production
Basing wage-incentive plans
Determining employee efficiency
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