Descriptive Research
methods
Dr. Surej P John
Main Topics
• Conceptual Framework
• Hypothesis development
• Descriptive research methods
• Survey
• Observation
The Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
• The primary purpose of the conceptual framework is to lead to
hypotheses that are subject to testing.
• The conceptual framework may be viewed as an analysis of the
research problem using a theory.
• In a conceptual framework development, the theories are
identified and then used in a conceptual analysis of the specific
research problem.
Need for a conceptual framework
• It is not necessary to include a conceptual framework in every
research
• The Theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among
the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of
the situation being investigated.
• Developing such a conceptual framework helps us postulate or
hypothesize and test certain relationships and thus to improve our
understanding of the dynamics of the situation.
Conceptual Framework -Example
Type of variables in a conceptual framework:
– The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable)
– The independent variable (also known as the predictor variable)
– The moderating variables
– The mediating variables.
The Dependent variable (DV)
• The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the
researcher.
• The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent
variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it.
• Through the analysis of the dependent variable, it is possible to
find answers or solutions to the problem.
The Independent Variable ( IV)
• An independent variable is the one that influences the dependent
variable in either a positive or negative way.
• With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an
increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. (the variance
in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent
variable.
The Moderating variable
• The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect
on the independent-dependent variable relationship.
• That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable)
modifies the original relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables.
Moderating Variable….
Mediating variable
• A mediating variable is also known as intervening variable.
• In statistics, a mediating variable refers to the variable that
explains how, rather than when an effect will occur by
accounting for the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
Mediating Variable..
Hypotheses and hypotheses testing
• Hypotheses result from the reasoning done in the
conceptual framework.
• Hypotheses are tentative assertions that are subject
to testing.
• Hypotheses can take the form of a simple proposition
of an expected outcome, or can assert the existence
of a relationship
• Hypotheses need to be testable and refutable.
How many hypotheses can be developed?
Hypotheses development
• H1: There is a relationship
decision
• H2: There is a relationship
• H3: There is a relationship
choice decision
• H4: There is a relationship
decision
• H5: There is a relationship
decision
• H6: There is a relationship
decision.
between cost of the studies and college choice
between Location and college choice decision
between High School personnel and college
between Peers and friends and college choice
between Programs offered and college choice
between Campus visit and college choice
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
SURVEY AND OBSERVATION
Descriptive research
• Descriptive
research,
is
used
to
describe
characteristics
of
a population or phenomenon being studied.
• It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics
occurred. Rather it addresses the "what" question (What are the
characteristics of the population or situation being studied?)
• Survey & Observation are the most common descriptive research methods.
Survey Methods
• The survey method of obtaining information is based on questioning
respondents.
• Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is how to motivate
respondents to candidly answer their questions.
• Questions regarding behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness,
motivations, and demographic and lifestyle characteristics all lend
themselves to survey research.
Advantages of Survey Methods
• Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to administer.
• Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice) questions reduces
variability in the results that may be caused by differences in
interviewers and enhances reliability of the responses.
• Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and interpretation of
data.
Disadvantages of Survey Methods
• Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the
desired information.
• Structured data collection involving a questionnaire with
fixed-response choices may result in loss of validity for
certain types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.
• Properly wording questions is not easy.
Classification of Survey Methods
Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Mail/Fax
Interview
In-Home
Traditional
Telephone
Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Electronic
E-Mail
Mail Panel
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Internet
Personal In-Home Interviews
• Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their
homes.
• The interviewer's task is to contact the respondents,
ask the questions, and record the responses.
• In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews
has declined.
Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews
• Respondents are intercepted in shopping in malls.
• The process involves stopping the shoppers,
screening them for appropriateness, and either
administering the survey on the spot or inviting them
to a research facility located in the mall to complete
the interview.
Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviewing (CAPI)
• The respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a
questionnaire on the screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.
• Help screens and courteous error messages are provided.
• The colorful screens and on- and off-screen stimuli add to the
respondent's interest and involvement in the task.
Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviewing (CAPI)
• This method has been classified as a personal interview
technique since an interviewer is usually present to
serve as a host and to guide the respondent as needed.
• This approach is used in shopping malls, preceded by
the intercept and screening process described earlier.
Self-Administered Surveys
• This is a data collection technique in which the
respondent reads the survey questions and records his or
her own answers without the presence of a trained
interviewer.
Self-Administered Surveys
Advantages:
•
•
•
•
Low cost per survey
Respondent control
No interviewer-respondent bias
Anonymity in responses
Disadvantages
• Minimum flexibility
• High non response rate
• Slow data collection
Mail Surveys
• A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing
envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, postage-paid return
envelope, and possibly an incentive.
• Those individuals motivated to do so complete and return
the questionnaire through the mail.
• There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and
the respondent.
Mail Panels
• Mail panels consist of a large and nationally
representative sample of individuals who have
agreed to participate in periodic survey research.
• Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often
offered to the individuals who agree to participate.
Mail Panels
• Once the individuals have been admitted to the panel,
detailed demographic and lifestyle data are collected on
each household.
• The researcher uses this information to select targeted
mailing lists within the panel based on client needs.
Email Surveys
• If the addresses are known, the survey can simply be
mailed electronically to respondents included in the
sample.
• Respondents key in their answers and send an e-mail
reply.
Internet Surveys
• An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web site that is self
administered by the respondent.
• The questions are displayed on the screen and the respondents
provide answers by clicking an icon, keying in an answer, or
highlighting a phrase.
• Web survey systems are available for constructing and posting
Internet surveys.
Internet Surveys
• As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys offer more flexibility,
greater interactivity, personalization, automatic skip patterns and
visual appeal.
• Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor, surveymonkey, Google form
etc. allow users to design surveys online without downloading the
software.
TABLE 7.1
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Telephone
Fast
High sample control
Good control of field force
Good response rate
Moderate cost
No use of physical stimuli
Limited to simple questions
Quantity of data is low
In-Home
Complex questions can be asked
Good for physical stimuli
Very good sample control
High quantity of data
Very good response rate
Low control of field force
High social desirability
Potential for interviewer bias
Most expensive
Mall-Intercept
Complex questions can be asked
High social desirability
Very good for physical stimuli
Potential for interviewer bias
Very good control of environment
Quantity of data is moderate
Very good response rate
High cost
________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 7.1 (Cont.)
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD
ADVANATAGES
DISADVANTAGES
CAPI
Complex questions can be asked
Very good for physical stimuli
Very good control of environment
Very good response rate
Low potential for interviewer bias
High social desirability
Quantity of data is moderate
High cost
Mail
No field force problems
No interviewer bias
Moderate/High quantity of data
Social desirability is low
Low/moderate cost
Limited to simple questions
Low sample control for cold mail
No control of environment
Low response rate for cold mail
Low speed
Electronic
No field force problems
Limited to simple questions
No interviewer bias
Low sample control
Low cost
No control of environment
Social desirability is low
Low response rate
High speed
Moderate quantity of data
________________________________________________________________________________
Observation based researches
A Classification of Observation Methods
Classifying
Observation
Methods
Observation Methods
Personal
Observation
Mechanical
Observation
Audit
Content
Analysis
Trace
Analysis
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being
observed but merely records what takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic
flows in a department store.