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Sociological Research > Research Models
Research Models
• Surveys
• Fieldwork/Observation
• Experiments
• Documents
• Use of Existing Sources
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Sociological Research > Research Models
Surveys
• The main advantage of surveys is that it is possible to survey a large number of
people in a timely and cost-effective manner.However, there is no way to
determine whether the sample taken is truly representative of the population.
• Variables are survey questions that measure some characteristic of the
population.Dependent variables change in response to the influence of
independent variables, while independent variables are those that when
manipulated will stimulate a change upon the dependent variables.
• In surveying, bias can refer to two situations: interviewer tendencies to hint at the
answer they would like to receive and thus influence the subjects' responses, or
the existence of a sample that shares some tendency that is not characteristic of
Writing survey questions
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the entire population.
• There are several types of surveys: polls collect opinions, cross-sectional surveys
are given once to a group of people, and longitudinal surveys are the same
survey given multiple times to a group of people over a long period of time.
• To ensure the data reflect the characteristics of a population as accurately as
possible, sociologist use random sampling, representative sampling, and stratified
random sampling.Convenience samples are taken because of ease of access and
thus represent volunteer bias.
• Constructing a rigorous and effective survey requires a large sample size, a high
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response rate, and high generalizability
(confidence that the results from the
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Sociological Research > Research Models
• There are several types of surveys: polls collect opinions, cross-sectional surveys are given once to a group of people, and
longitudinal surveys are the same survey given multiple times to a group of people over a long period of time.
• The various ways in which sociologists try to make their data reflect the characteristics of a population as accurately as
possible include random sampling, representative sampling, and stratified random sampling.Convenience samples are taken
because of ease of access and thus represent volunteer bias.
• Constructing a rigorous and effective survey requires a large sample size, a high response rate, and high generalizability
(confidence that the results from the sample apply to the general population).It also requires valid and reliable survey
questions.
• Valid survey questions are those that are accurate and measure what they claim to measure.
• A reliable survey question is one that is relatively free from bias errors.
• The different types of survey questions possible are open, allowing subjects to respond in their own words, or closed, providing
a set list of answers from which subjects must choose.The Likert Scale question is a common example of a closed survey
question.Demographic questions (which provide basic categorical information about subjects) can be open or closed.
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Sociological Research > Research Models
Fieldwork/Observation
• Ethnographic work requires intensive and often immersive long-term participation
in the community that is the subject of research, typically involving physical
relocation (hence the term fieldwork).
• In participant observation, the researcher immerses himself in a cultural
environment, usually over an extended period of time, in order to gain a close and
intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals and their practices.
• Such research involves a range of well-defined, though variable methods:
interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective
discussions, analyses of personal documents produced within the group, selfanalysis, and life-histories, among others.
Fieldwork and Observation
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• The advantage of ethnography as a technique is that it maximizes the
researcher's understanding of the social and cultural context in which human
behavior occurs.
• The advantage of ethnography as a technique is that it maximizes the
researcher's understanding of the social and cultural context in which human
behavior occurs.The ethnographer seeks out and develops relationships with
cultural insiders, or informants, who are willing to explain aspects of their
community from a native viewpoint.A particularly knowledgeable informant who
can connect the ethnographer with other such informants is known as a key
informant.
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Sociological Research > Research Models
Experiments
• Experiments are controlled tests designed to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
• A hypothesis is a prediction or an idea that has not yet been tested.
• Researchers must attempt to identify everything that might influence the results of
an experiment, and do their best to neutralize the effects of everything except the
topic of study.
• Since social scientists do not seek to isolate variables in the same way that the
hard sciences do, sociologists create the equivalent of an experimental control via
statistical techniques that are applied after data is gathered.
• A control is when two identical experiments are conducted and the factor being
tested is varied in only one of these experiments.
An Experiment
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Sociological Research > Research Models
Documents
• This kind of sociological research is generally considered a part of media studies.
• Unobtrusive research involves ways of studying human behavior without affecting
it in the process.
• Documents can either be primary sources, which are original materials that are
not created after the fact with the benefit of hindsight, or secondary sources that
cite, comment, or build upon primary sources.
• Typically, sociological research involving documents falls under the crossdisciplinary purview of media studies, which encompasses all research dealing
with television, books, magazines, pamphlets, or any other human-recorded
Government Documentary Research
data.The specific media being studied are often referred to as texts.
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• Sociological research involving documents, or, more specifically, media studies, is
one of the less interactive research options available to sociologists.It can provide
a significant insight into the norms, values, and beliefs of people belonging to a
particular historical and cultural context.
• Content analysis is the study of recorded human communications.
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Sociological Research > Research Models
Use of Existing Sources
• Archival research is the study of existing sources.Without archival research, any
research project is necessarily incomplete.
• The study of sources collected by someone other than the researcher is known as
archival research or secondary data research.
• The importance of archival or secondary data research is two-fold.By studying
texts related to their topics, researchers gain a strong foundation on which to base
their work.Secondly, this kind of study is necessary in the development of their
central research question.
Existing Sources
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Appendix
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Sociological Research
Key terms
• Archival research An archive is a way of sorting and organizing older documents, whether it be digitally (photographs online, emails, etc.) or manually (putting it in folders, photo albums, etc.).Archiving is one part of the curating process which is typically
carried out by a curator.
• content analysis Content analysis or textual analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of
communication.
• control A separate group or subject in an experiment against which the results are compared where the primary variable is low
or nonexistent.
• cross-sectional survey Cross-sectional studies (also known as cross-sectional analyses, transversal studies, prevalence study)
form a class of research methods that involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point
in time.
• documentary research Documentary research involves the use of texts and documents as source materials.Source materials
include: government publications, newspapers, certificates, census publications, novels, film and video, paintings, personal
photographs, diaries and innumerable other written, visual, and pictorial sources in paper, electronic, or other "hard copy" form.
• ethnography The branch of anthropology that scientifically describes specific human cultures and societies.
• experiment A test under controlled conditions made to either demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis,
or determine the efficacy of something previously untried.
• hypothesis Used loosely, a tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be
tested by further observation, investigation, or experimentation.
• longitudinal survey A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same
variables over long periods of time—often many decades.
• media studies Academic discipline that deals with the content, history, meaning, and effects of various media, and in particular
mass media.
• primary data Data that has been compiled for a specific purpose, and has not been collated or merged with others.
• qualitative Of descriptions or distinctions based on some quality rather than on some quantity.
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Sociological Research
• sample A subset of a population selected for measurement, observation or questioning, to provide statistical information about
the population.
• secondary data Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the user.Common sources of secondary data for
social science include censuses, organizational records, and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative
research.
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Sociological Research
Gang Leader for a Day: Sudhir Venkatesh
As a graduate student, Venkatesh conducted an ethnography of a crack-dealing gang in Chicago.In this video, he discusses the research process.
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YouTube. "Gang Leader for a Day: Sudhir Venkatesh - YouTube." Youtube License https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRq1AhFAN-4 View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Exhibits at a Science Fair
If you've ever competed in a science fair, you're already familiar with the way experiments are used in natural sciences.But because social life is so
complex, social scientists are rarely able to conduct such experiments.Instead, they use statistics to mimic experimental conditions with their data.
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Wikimedia. "Science fair exhibit butterflies." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_fair_exhibit_butterflies.jpg View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Abortions and Crime: Freakonomics Movie
Ethical guidelines and expenses often prohibit social scientists from conducting experiments, but creative researchers can take advantage of so-called
natural experiments to use a similar logic.Here, Freakanomics author Steven Levitt explains his most famous natural experiment, which found that
legalizing abortion led to a drop in crime.
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YouTube. "Abortions and Crime: Freakonomics Movie - YouTube." Youtube License https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zk6gOeggViw View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Media studies and popular culture
Sociologists may use documents such as photographs, video, or audio recordings to study the development of popular culture or the diffusion of fashions
or norms.
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Wikimedia. "Elvis Presley Jailhouse Rock." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elvis_Presley_Jailhouse_Rock.jpg View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Ethnographer Bronislaw Malinowski, 1884-1942
Malinowski was a pioneer in the field of cultural anthropology who coined the term participatory observation.
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Wikipedia. "Bronislawmalinowski." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronislawmalinowski.jpg View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
An Experiment
An experiment is a controlled test designed specifically to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
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Flickr. "All sizes | Keep Out Experiment In Progress | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." CC BY http://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/2798315677/sizes/l/ View on
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Sociological Research
Nuclear Energy Support in the U.S.
This pie chart shows the results of a survey of people in the United States (February 2005, Bisconti Research Inc.).According to the poll, 67 percent of
Americans favor nuclear energy (blue), while 26 percent oppose it (yellow).
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Wikimedia. "Nuclear energy poll usa." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_energy_poll_usa.png View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Existing Sources
While some sociologists spend time in the field conducting surveys or observing participants, others spend most of their research time in libraries, using
existing sources for their research.
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Wikimedia. "Bemowo library books." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bemowo_library_books.jpg View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Government Documentary Research
Sociologists may use government documents to research the ways in which policies are made.
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Wikimedia. "National-archives." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National-archives.jpg View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Fieldwork and Observation
One of the most common methods for collecting data in an ethnographic study is first-hand engagement, known as participant observation.
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Flickr. "All sizes | fashion observation experiment - outliers | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." CC BY http://www.flickr.com/photos/uair01/6512299607/sizes/l/ View on
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Sociological Research
Writing survey questions
Researchers must carefully design survey questions to ensure they receive accurate and unbiased results.
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YouTube. "Teaching English : Creating Survey Questions - YouTube." Youtube License https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfct9PET6lY View on Boundless.com
Sociological Research
Which of the following is NOT an advantage associated with the
use of existing sources?
A) Researchers gain a strong foundation on which to base their work
B) It may save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data
C) It may relieve the researcher of the requirement to do original work
D) It may help developing new research questions
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Sociological Research
Which of the following is NOT an advantage associated with the
use of existing sources?
A) Researchers gain a strong foundation on which to base their work
B) It may save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data
C) It may relieve the researcher of the requirement to do original work
D) It may help developing new research questions
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Sociological Research
The study of recorded human communications, such as paintings,
written texts, and photos is usually called
A) obtrusive research
B) literary theory
C) information theory
D) content analysis
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Sociological Research
The study of recorded human communications, such as paintings,
written texts, and photos is usually called
A) obtrusive research
B) literary theory
C) information theory
D) content analysis
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Sociological Research
All of the following reasons make direct experimentation is less
common in sociology EXCEPT
A) Sociologists are not required to prove their hypotheses
B) Ethical concerns
C) The cost of manipulating large segments of society
D) Different approach to isolating variables
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Sociological Research
All of the following reasons make direct experimentation is less
common in sociology EXCEPT
A) Sociologists are not required to prove their hypotheses
B) Ethical concerns
C) The cost of manipulating large segments of society
D) Different approach to isolating variables
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Sociological Research
If a researcher immerses himself in a cultural environment over an
extended period of time in order to gain a close and intimate
familiarity with a given group of individuals and their practices, he
deploys the method of
A) participant observation
B) collective discussion
C) self-analysis
D) geneology
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Sociological Research
If a researcher immerses himself in a cultural environment over an
extended period of time in order to gain a close and intimate
familiarity with a given group of individuals and their practices, he
deploys the method of
A) participant observation
B) collective discussion
C) self-analysis
D) geneology
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Sociological Research
A sample consisting of a portion of the population that is not
scientifically drawn but instead collected because it is easy to
access is called
A) stratified random sample
B) convenience sample
C) random sample
D) representative sample
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Sociological Research
A sample consisting of a portion of the population that is not
scientifically drawn but instead collected because it is easy to
access is called
A) stratified random sample
B) convenience sample
C) random sample
D) representative sample
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Sociological Research
Using secondary data is considered an unobtrusive or _____
research method.
A) non-participatory
B) non-restrictive
C) non-confrontive
D) non-reactive
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Sociological Research
Using secondary data is considered an unobtrusive or _____
research method.
A) non-participatory
B) non-restrictive
C) non-confrontive
D) non-reactive
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Saylor OER. "Electives « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0 http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Sociological Research
Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select
participants?
A) Participants do not know they are part of a study
B) The researcher has no control over who is in the study
C) It is larger than an ordinary sample
D) Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study
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Sociological Research
Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select
participants?
A) Participants do not know they are part of a study
B) The researcher has no control over who is in the study
C) It is larger than an ordinary sample
D) Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study
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Sociological Research
Which research approach is best suited to the scientific method?
A) Case study
B) Questionnaire
C) Ethnography
D) Secondary data analysis
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Sociological Research
Which research approach is best suited to the scientific method?
A) Case study
B) Questionnaire
C) Ethnography
D) Secondary data analysis
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http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Sociological Research
A measurement is considered ______- if it actually measures
what it is intended to measure, according to the topic of the study.
A) reliable
B) valid
C) sociological
D) quantitative
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Sociological Research
A measurement is considered ______- if it actually measures
what it is intended to measure, according to the topic of the study.
A) reliable
B) valid
C) sociological
D) quantitative
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http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Sociological Research
Which would a quantitative sociologist use to gather data?
A) A large survey
B) A literature search
C) An in-depth interview
D) A review of television programs
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Sociological Research
Which would a quantitative sociologist use to gather data?
A) A large survey
B) A literature search
C) An in-depth interview
D) A review of television programs
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Sociological Research
Which materials are considered secondary data?
A) Photos and letters given to you by another person
B) Information that you have gathered and now have included in your
results
C) Books and articles written by other authors about their studies
D) Responses from participants whom you both surveyed and
interviewed
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Sociological Research
Which materials are considered secondary data?
A) Photos and letters given to you by another person
B) Information that you have gathered and now have included in your
results
C) Books and articles written by other authors about their studies
D) Responses from participants whom you both surveyed and
interviewed
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Saylor OER. "Electives « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0 http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Sociological Research
Attribution
• Wikipedia. "Ethnography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography
• Wikipedia. "Participant observation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation
• Wikibooks. "Ethnography of Fiddle/Ethnography." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ethnography_of_Fiddle/Ethnography
• Wikibooks. "Cultural Anthropology/History of Anthropological Theory." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology/History_of_Anthropological_Theory
• Wiktionary. "qualitative." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qualitative
• Wiktionary. "ethnography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethnography
• Wikibooks. "Introduction to Sociology/Sociological Methods." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Sociological_Methods#Experiment
• Wiktionary. "experiment." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/experiment
• Wiktionary. "hypothesis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypothesis
• Wiktionary. "control." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/control
• Wikipedia. "Secondary data analysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data_analysis
• Wiktionary. "primary data." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primary+data
• Wikipedia. "Archival research." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival+research
• Wikipedia. "secondary data." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/secondary+data
• Wikipedia. "Documentary research." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_research
• Wikipedia. "Content analysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_analysis
• Wikipedia. "Media studies." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_studies
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Sociological Research
• Wikibooks. "Social Research Methods/Unobtrusive Research." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Unobtrusive_Research
• Wikipedia. "Primary source." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_source
• Wiktionary. "media studies." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/media+studies
• Wikipedia. "documentary research." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/documentary+research
• Wikipedia. "content analysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/content+analysis
• Utah Valley University. "Chapter 04 - Scientific Sociology." CC BY http://freebooks.uvu.edu/SOC1010/index.php/scientificsociology.html
• Wiktionary. "sample." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sample
• Wikipedia. "cross-sectional survey." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cross-sectional+survey
• Wikipedia. "longitudinal survey." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/longitudinal+survey
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