Dept. of Educational Administration & Policy
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
PEDU 6209
Policy Studies in Education
TSANG, Wing Kwong
Tel. 39436922
PEDu 6209
Policy Studies in Education
Topic 1
Introduction to
Policy Studies in Education:
Definitions of a Discipline and a Field
TSANG Wing-kwong
What is at Issue?
What is your decision?
What is your action?
What is at Issue?
What is your decision?
What is your action?
協 恩 校 長 鼓 動 學蘋論：學習協恩平和理性討論佔中
生違法須追究責任
How can I make sense of this
What
is
at
Issue?
complex and politically
chargedis
situation?
What
your decision?
協 恩 中 學 校 長 李 鎮 洪 不 顧 學 生 家實長在和
界學
強師
烈生質鼓疑掌。他
和 反們
對在，巨 大 政 治 壓 力 下 堅 持 獨 立 思 考
該社
為會
協各
恩中
昨 日 仍 堅 持 邀 請 「 佔 中 」 發 起 人及戴判耀
廷 在請
校和園平舉
學起
生人
違戴法耀 廷 先 生 及 人 大 常 委 范 徐 麗 泰
斷，邀
佔行
中鼓
運動
動發
的 講 座 。 「 佔 中 」 是 違 法 的 行 動女，士在
傳育
「講
佔座，討
中 」論
等佔
於中
宣行傳動 的 理 念、原 則、做 法 與 代 價 。
出校
席園
通宣
識教
違 法 ， 心 智 未 成 熟 的 學 生 被 灌 輸不不管尊
的何
意看
識佔，中極行易
被 誤們導都 已 將 協 恩 中 學 變 成 學 術 自 由 、
師重
生法
最治
終如
動，他
參 與 違 法 行 動 ， 這 無 論 對 學 生 的獨前立途
或是心靈的戕害，都是極其
思 考 的 堡 壘，令 校 園 變 成 真 正 的 意 見 自 由 市 場，讓 不 同 意 見 能
嚴重的。教育局應追究協恩校長無視當局指引，違反有關教育法
順 暢 交 流 交 鋒。我 們 希 望 有 更 多 學 校 能 像 協 恩 中 學 那 樣 敢 於 討 論 重
例和守則的嚴重失當行為。戴耀廷鼓動學生充當「佔中」棋子的
要 及 有 爭 議 性 的 社 會 課 題，刺 激 學 生 的 思 考，擴 闊 學 生 的 視 野。我
不道德行為，也嚴重違反教育工作者的品格與操守。對李鎮洪和
們 更 希 望 整 體 社 會 也 能 像 協 恩 中 學 師 生 那 樣，冷 靜、理 性 討 論 佔 中
戴耀廷鼓動學生違法的行為，當局應追究，社會應譴責。
行動的利弊好壞。
How
should
I
act,
given
this
What is your action?
complexity, uncertainty, and
ambiguity?
協 恩 中 學 上 月 擬 邀 戴 耀 廷 與 學 生正對如「
作起
「人
交戴流耀」廷，
佔佔
中中
運」
動發
先活
生動
所最
言，運 動 的 成 敗 取 決 於 市 民 是 否
終 因 黑 色 暴 雨 警 告 停 課 而 取 消 ，認但同校
鎮 洪決
卻於不有顧
對意
，配 合 及 參 與。若 果 絕 大 部 份 市
及長
支李
持、取
多家
少長
市反
民願
仍 然 邀 請 戴 耀 廷 昨 日 到 學 校 推 銷民「不佔
讓動
他的
有理機念會與在
校 向果 參 與 的 市 民 只 有 小 貓 三 幾 隻 ，
認中
同」
佔，
中行
做學
法，若
莘 莘 學 子 宣 傳 犯 法 的 行 為。李 鎮那
洪不聲管稱「
」，但「
佔中」
發 起政
人治
喊中
的立
如何
聲 嘶 力 竭，不
管警方是否把發起人及參與者
主 辦 方 在 全 力 動 員 「 佔 中 」 ， 協拘恩捕，佔
邀請其
發起人舉行宣傳和動員
中 運 動 激 起 的 只 會 是 一 陣 漣 漪，既 不 影 響 大 局，更 不 足 以
「佔中」的大會，絕非「政治中立」和「不偏不倚」，而是配合
改 變 政 制 走 向。而 要 爭 取 大 部 份 市 民 認 同 及 支 持，最 關 鍵 是 向 市 民
發起人煽動學生參與違法「佔中」活動，與所謂培育學生多角 度
講 清 楚 說 明 白，最 重 要 是 就 佔 中 運 動 的 理 據 及 必 要 性 來 一 次 深 入 討
思考完全是兩回事。李鎮洪偷換概念，豈能推卸鼓動學生違法的
論，令 市 民 明 白 公 民 抗 命 是 爭 取 民 主 政 制，打 破 政 治 僵 局 的 必 要 做
責任？
法。
自 古 以 來 ， 「 師 者 ， 所 以 傳 道 、過授去業
也 」 。港學
要 傳團
的已是用 過 大 量 不 同 方 式 表 達 民 主 訴
三、
十解
多惑
年 來，香
市校
民、政
正 道 ， 授 的 是 正 業 ， 解 的 是 正 知求，希
，所以
子落
說實
「全教面者
以 正可
」惜，從 港 英 政 府 到 北 京 政 府 要 不 是
望孟
盡快
普必
選。只
這 個 「 正 」 字 ， 最 起 碼 不 能 違 法虛。與在
道三
傳拖
統延，近
下 ，十
學年
生來
比北較京 更 乾 脆 以 霸 王 硬 上 弓 的 粗 暴
委尊
蛇師
就重
是再
Policy Studies in Education: An Overview
z Definitions of the discipline: Policy Studies
y Definition of the subject of inquiry
y Definition of the issue of inquiry
x Study for policy
x Study of policy
y Definition of the method of inquiry
z Definition of the field: Policy studies in
education
y Study for education policy
y Study of education policy
Policy Studies: Definitions of a Discipline
zDefinitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of policy
x
x
x
The Oxford English Dictionary: "A course of action or
principle adopted or proposed by a government, party,
individual, etc.; any course of action adopted as
advantageous or expedient."
“Policy is defined as a ‘standing decision’ characterized by
behavioral consistency and repetitiveness on the part of
both who make it and those who abide by it.” (Eulau &
Prewitt, 1973, p. 465)
“Routinization (in complex social life) is achieved through
the formulation and implementation of policies. Policies are
statements that prescribe courses of action in
organizations. They govern the internal functioning of the
organizations, their external relations, and the way they
attain their goals.” (Midgley, 2000, p. 3)
Policy Studies: Definitions of a Discipline
zDefinitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of policy
x
x
Policy is “a projected program of goals, values, and
practices.” (Lasswell & Kaplan, 1970, p. 71)
"To have a policy is to have rational reasons or
argurments which contain both a claim to an
understanding of a problem and a solution. It put forward
what is and what ought to be done. A policy offers a kind
of theory upon which a claim for legitimacy is made."
(Parson, 1995, p. 15)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of public policy
x “Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or
not to do.” (Dye, 1998, p. 2)
x William Jenkins conceptualizes public policy as “ a set of
interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of
actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of
achieving them within a specific situation where those
decisions should, in principle, be within the power of those
actors to achieve.” (Quoted in Howlett & Ramesh, 1995, p. 5)
x David Easton defines public policy as “the authoritative
allocation of values for the whole society.” (Easton, 1953, p.
129)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
z Definitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of public policy
x Giandomenico Majone “As politicians know too well but
social scientists too often forget, public policy is made of
language. Whether in written or oral form, argument is
central in all stages of the policy process.” (Majone, 1989,
p.1)
x “The practice of public policy making largely a matter of
persuasion. So is the discipline of studying public policy
making aptly described as itself being a ‘persuasion’. It is a
mood more than a science, a loosely organized body of
percepts and positions rather than a tightly integrated body
of systemic knowledge, more art and craft and genuine
‘science’.” (Goodin, Rein and Moran, 2006, p. 5)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of public policy
x
“Public policy is a discursive construct rather than a selfdefining phenomenon.” (Fischer, 2003, p. 69) ”
“We define policy as a political agreement on a course of
action (or inaction) designed to resolve or mitigate
problems on the political agenda. This agreement…is an
intellectual constructs rather than a self-defining
phenomenon. Discursively constructed, there can be no
inherently unique decision, institutions, or actors
constituting public policy that are to be identified,
uncovered, and explained. Public policy, as such, is an
analytical category with a substantive content cannot be
simply researched; more fundamentally, it has to be
interpreted.” (p.60)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinitions of the subject inquiry
y Definition of social policy
x
x
“Social policy …refers to the actual policies and programs
of governments that affect people’s welfare.” (Midley, 2000,
p.4)
“Social policy may be defined as policy activities which
influence welfare. Whilst non-state bodies may be
described as having policies, a generic expression like
‘social policy’ is primarily used to define the role of the
state in relation to the welfare of its citizens.” (Hill, 1997, p.
1)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinition of issues of inquiry
y Harold Lasswell characterizes that “As a working
definition, we say that the policy science are
concerned with knowledge of and in the decision
processes of the public and civic order.” (1971,
p.1, original emphasis)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinition of issues of inquiry
yStudy for policy:
x William Dunn indicates that “policy analysis is a problem
solving discipline. …Policy analysis addresses five types of
questions:
• What is the nature of the problem for which solution is sought?
• Which of two or more courses of action should be chosen to
solve the problem?
• What are the outcomes of choosing that course of action?
• Does achieving the outcomes contribute to solving the problem?
• What future outcomes can be expected if other courses of action
are chosen?” (p. 3)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinition of issues of inquiry
y Study for policy
x Policy Studies generates knowledge for problemsolving
- Problem recognition
- Proposal of solution
- Choice of solution
- Putting solution into
effect
- Monitoring results
- Agenda-setting
- Policy formation
- Decision-making
- Policy implementation
- Policy evaluation
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinition of issues of inquiry
y Study of policy
x Thomas Dye defines the study of public policy as “the
description and explanation of the causes and
consequences of government activities, This focus involves
• a description of the content of public policy;
• an analysis of the impact of social, economic, and political
forces on the content of the public policy;
• an inquiry into the effect of various institutional arrangements
and political processes on public policy; and
• an evaluation of the consequences of public policies on society,
both expected and unexpected.” (p.5)
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
zDefinition of issues of inquiry
y Study of policy
x Policy Studies generates knowledge of policy
- Study of the policy contents or substances
- Study of the policy process
- Institutional or systemic study of policy
- Study of the policy frame and policy discourse
- Critical study of ideological implications of policy
Policy Studies: Definition of a Discipline
z Definitions of methods of inquiry
y The policy science movement
x Analytic-technical method
x Political system method
y The interpretive-political method
x Study of meanings and values invested in policy
x Study of text, textuality and intertextuality of policy
documents
x Study of policy argument
x Study of policy frame
y The discursive critical method
x Study of policy discourse
x Study of dominant ideology at work in policy
Policy Studies in Education: Definition of a
Field
z Definition of education policy: Whatever a
government choose to do or not to do in
education.”
z Definition of issues of inquiry
y Study for education policy
x Status-quo study and definition of the education problems
x Causality study for policy solution of the education policy
x Rational study for choice of solutions
x Study of policy implementation
x Policy evaluation study
Policy Studies in Education: Definition of a
Field
z Definition of issues of inquiry
y Study for education policy
y Study of education policy
x
x
x
x
Study of the substance of the education policy
Study of the process of the education policy
Institutional or systemic studies of the education policy
Study the formation of the policy frame and discourse in
education
x Critical study of ideological implications of the education
policy
A.
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline
of Policy Studies
Journals on Policy Studies
z Policy Studies Journal (1971present), publisher: Policy
Studies Organization (US based)
z Review of Policy Research,
(1981-present), publisher: Policy
Studies Organization (US based)
z Politics and Policy, (1973present), publisher: Policy
Studies Organization (US based)
Journals on Policy Studies
z Journal of Public Policy (1981present), publisher: Cambridge
University Press (UK based)
Journals on Education Policy
z Educational Evaluation and
Policy Analysis, (1979-present)
Publisher: AERA (US based)
z Journal of Education Policy,
(1986-present) Publisher: Taylor
& Francis (UK based)
z Educational Policy, (1987present) Publisher: Sage (US
based)
(2006)
(2006)
(2007)
(1999)
(1999)
(2009)
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline of Policy Studies
z Theoretical perspectives in policy studies
y Analytic-technical perspective
y Interpretive-political perspective
y Discursive-critical perspective
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline
z Understanding of the nature of public policy
y A public policy as analytic-technical design of
means-end model and the course of action taken
accordingly
y A public policy as an aggregate of socially
constructed realities of interpretive communities
and the courses of actions each interpretive
community wanted to input to the public arena
y A public policy as a discursive construct under a
particular knowledge/power configuration of a
society and the dominance of the course of action
legitimatized by this discursive configuration
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline
z Understanding the process of public policy
y Policy formulation & making study
x Policy making as rational choice of the best
alternative to the problem as informed by the
analytic-positivist and value-free study for the
policy
x Policy making as political outcome of compromise
of conflicting interpretations of different
interpretive communities made up of stake holders
of the policy issue at hand
x Policy making as formation of the discourse to a
policy issue within a particular knowledge/power
configuration of a society
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline
z Understanding the process of public policy
y Policy implementation study
x Policy implementation as well-controlled plan of
execution of the pre-designed course of action in a
particular policy environment
x Policy implementation as multilateral and multilevel processes of interpretations and puzzlements
of execution of policy measures
x Policy implementation as discursive strategies of
maintaining the dominance of a particular version
of discourse to the policy problem at hand
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline of Policy Studies
z Understanding the process of public policy
y Policy evaluation study
x Policy evaluation as rational, empirical and
positivist assessment of the extent to which the
policy means have attained the pre-conceived
ends
x Policy evaluation as yet another round of
multilateral and multi-level interpretations of the
outcomes and consequences of the policy
x Policy evaluation is formation of the discourse to
the effectiveness and efficiency of the policy at
hand
The State of the Art:
The Overview of the Discipline
z Understanding of the ontological interest of public
policy
y Public policy and policy studies as means to serve the
interest of technical control of physical and social
environment of human existence
y Public policy and policy studies as ways to facilitate the
interest of mutual understanding within the human
community and possible to reconcile conflicts
y Public policy and policy studies as practice to fulfill the
interest of human freedom and liberation from powerhypostatized and systemic distorted human existence
Topic 1:
Definitions and Development of the Discipline & field
END