Chapter 1
Religious Responses
Why are there religions?
Understandings of Sacred Reality
Ritual, symbol, and myth
Absolutist and liberal interpretations
The encounter between science and religion
Women in religions
Negative aspects of organized religions
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absolutist
agnosticism
allegory
atheism
awakening
charisma
comparative religion
Creationism
Darwinism
dogma
enlightenment
exclusivism
fundamentalism
gnosis
heretic
immanent
incarnation
intelligent design
liberal
metaphysics
monotheism
mysticism
myth
orthodox
phenomenology
polytheism
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profane
realization
redaction
religion
ritual
sacred
scientific materialism
spirituality
symbol
theism
transcendent
universalism
Karl Marx
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“He is forever free who has broken
Out of the ego-cage of I and mine
To be united with the Lord of Love.
This is the supreme state. Attain thou this
And pass from death to immortality.”
Bhagavad Gita
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
Timeline
c. 427-347 BCE
1642-1727 CE
1809-1882
1818-1883
1825-1895
1842-1910
1856-1939
1858-1917
1869-1937
1875-1961
1904-1987
1907-1986
19411946 -
Plato, “body is soul’s prison”
Isaac Newton, physicist and theologian
Chas. Darwin, evolution undermines religion
Karl Marx, “religion is tool of oppression”
Thos. Henry Huxley, coins “agnosticism”
Wm. James, Varieties of Religious Experience
Sigmund Freud, “religion is neurosis”
Emile Durkheim, “religion needed for survival”
Rudolf Otto, “religion irreducible”
Carl Jung, “collective unconscious”
Mircea Eliade, comparative religionist
Jos. Campbell, comparative mythologist
Richard Dawkins, militant atheist
Paul Davies, physicist and theologian
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Continual worship at a sacred fire at Gobind Sadan, India.
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
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Materialist Perspective: Humans Invented
Religion
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Functional Perspective: Religion Is Useful
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Belief Perspective: Ultimate Reality Exists
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
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One set of explanations called the materialistic perspective
maintains that the supernatural exists only in our
imaginations.
Only the physical world really exists.
Religion is therefore essentially bad for people because it
deludes us and detracts our attention away from dealing
with the only material world we have.
This explanation goes on to assert that humans created
religion and not for the highest of motives.
Sigmund Frued – “religion is a mental illness”
Karl Marx – “religion is a mind numbing drug, invented to
oppress people”
Ludwig Feurbach – “our fears are turned into gods”
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Some psychologists believe that religion can indeed be good for
people
It is good because religion is thought to fulfill deep individual
needs of humanity
Adherents of this view maintain that religion can enhance one’s
mental health and aid in the development of maturity
All religions help discover meaning in the midst of the ordinary
This may be one of the deepest felt needs within human life, to
have a sense of higher purpose and direction.
Finally, religion can be a source of comfort, a way of answering
the discomforting even terrifying sense of isolation, of being alone
in the universe.
Erich Fromm – “people have a normal need for stability and
humanistic religions (as opposed to authoritarian ones) can fulfill
that need”
Mircea Eliade – “is to say that all religions help one seek out the
sacred amidst the profane”
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This view asserts that Ultimate Reality is real, that there is a transcendent
or supernatural sphere co-existing with the physical universe
This belief is frequently grounded in some kind of mystical experience,
the overwhelming awareness that one has been touched by a reality that
far transcends ordinary life
Those claiming mystical experience often find it hard to express and
explain
There is an ineffable dimension to such experiences. Ineffable simply
means that you have an experience which you know to be real; however,
you can only describe, express, and explain it partially to others
These encounters with transcendent reality are given different names in
different religious traditions: coming home, ecstatic communion, gnosis,
self-knowledge, awakening, kensho, illumination, enlightenment, for
example. These may arise spontaneously or by measures of inducement
However encountered and however described, mystical experiences are
part of the universal phenomenon of religion
Existential loneliness
is depicted by
Alberto Giacometti’s
Walking Man.
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The Unnameable in the ordinary: Samuel Palmer, Waterfalls.
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
God as a bearded old man
ruling the world from the sky:
William Blake,
The Act of Creation.
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
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Mircea Eliade: helped to develop the field of
comparative religion
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Used the terms “sacred” and “profane”
Here the sacred refers to the extraordinary, the
supernatural, the source of the universe and
values, significance. The idea of profane refers
to what is mundane, ordinary, the everyday.
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Some cultures do not make a clear distinction
between the sacred and the profane, such as many
indigenous peoples
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Immanent view of sacred reality (existing in the world)
 Transcendent view of sacred reality (existing above and outside
the world)
 Concept of sacred Being
Theistic (monotheistic or polytheistic) - Religions that understand
the Sacred to be a personal reality and are based on one’s
relationship to the Personal Sacred are called theistic
Some theists believe in human incarnations or special
manifestations
Monistic (everything is a unified whole) - Religions, which
maintain that behind the plurality of apparent forms there is one
under girding substance, are termed monistic
Nontheistic (no god/gods) - means that there is ultimacy to the
universe but it is expressed without relationship to a sacred reality
beyond our world.
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©Prof A. D'Ascoli
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Atheism is a term that means disbelief in any deity
“New Atheism,” promoted by thinkers such as Richard Dawkins,
argues that religious faith is not just wrong, but evil, because it can
be used to support violence
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LxHsfbhCplI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4RWIf9mN9o&NR=1&feat
ure=fvwp
Agnosticism does not deny the existence of the divine but states
that it is impossible or unnecessary for humans to know with
certainty about the existence of the Sacred
It is important to emphasize to students that these categories are
not necessarily mutually exclusive
Religions, which conceive of a Personal Sacred Reality, can think
of that Reality as simultaneously immanent and transcendent
It is also possible that at times some of these distinctions may blur
For example, a Hindu may be a polytheist and believe in the
existence of many gods but may be somewhat monotheistic in
practice when she or he places one god at the top of the pantheon
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Exclusivist religious authorities claim that they
worship the only true deity and that all others
are pagans or nonbelievers.
In contrast, universalism is the view that it is
possible different religions are talking about
the same thing in different languages, or
referring to different aspects of the same
unknowable whole
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Phenomena of religion are ways of:
Worship
Symbol
Myths
It is usual now to understand symbols and myths metaphorically
rather than literally. They both signify deep realities, which
transcend them. In other words, symbols and myths are not
simply identical to what they signify
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Attempts to express reverence
Enter into communion with object of worship
Acts of worship that are predictable and
repeated are rituals
Worhip is a dramatic gesture which attempts to
express in outward form the reverence and awe
which one experiences in response to Ultimate
Reality, e.g., rituals, sacraments, prayers, and
spiritual practices
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Images borrowed from material world that are similar
to ineffable spiritual experiences
Carl Jung proposed that humanity as a whole has a
collective unconscious of archetypal symbols from
which separate cultures have drawn
A symbol is an object, a place, a person, or an action
which allows worshiper to enter a sacred state of
communion with Ultimate Reality, e.g., the sharing of
food, the use of fire or candles, water purification, uses
of flowers or fragrances
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Symbolic stories that communities use to
explain the universe and their place within it
Four primary functions, according to Joseph
Campbell
mystical
 cosmological
 sociological
 Psychological
 Myths are stories founded on symbols. They attempt
to express infinite reality and meaning using finite
means. Moreover, a major purpose of religious
myths is to constitute models of human behavior
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Within each religious community there are different ways of
interpreting its traditions. At least six models of interpretation can
be identified:
A. Orthodox: adhere to an established, historical form of their
religion
B. Absolutist - orthodox adherents who resist contemporary
influences and affirm the "historical core" of their religion.
C. Fundamentalism - selective insistence on parts of a religious
tradition. May include violence against people of other religions.
D. Liberal: flexible approach to religious tradition; often advocate
reform of ways religions is practiced, understood.
E. Heretics: those who assert positions or practices that are
unacceptable to the orthodox
F. Mystics - guided by their own spiritual experiences. May or
may not coincide with any of the above positions
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Academic study of religion requires us to
"bracket" our own beliefs, at least temporarily,
and to try to see the world from the point of
view of the adherents of other faith traditions.
This approach is often called phenomenology.
This approach tries to:
(1) avoid "reductionism:" explaining religion as
a purely historical, psychological, economic or
political object.
(2)take seriously the meaning that a religious
tradition has for its adherents.
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Science, like religion, searches for universal principles to explain
reality
Early scientists placed greater emphasis on rational knowledge
Recently, scientists have sought to understand religious belief
Conflict between science and religion is exemplified in the
opposing views of creationism and Darwinism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSxgnu3Hww8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfZFsXfCy6s
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRLR9jhP_DM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMyZblR5W04&feature=rel
mfu
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The eighteenth-century Enlightenment placed greater
respect on rational knowledge than religious
knowledge
In the nineteenth century, Darwin’s theory of evolution
challenged the biblical view of creation. As
evolutionary biology has continued to develop since
Darwin, more is known about the role of genetics in
natural selection. Also, studies are revealing more and
more evidence of gradual changes in organisms from
fossil records and the genetic records encoded in DNA
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4 propositions in current dialogue:
Conflict model
Science and religion deal with separate realms
A dialogue in which scientists and religious
believers can find common ground
Integration , in which science and religion
overlap
Hubble telescope
reveals star
nurseries 6 trillion
miles high in the
Eagle Nebula.
©Prof A. D'Ascoli
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Most institutionalized religions are patriarchal
This situation is being widely challenged by the
contemporary feminist movement
Many women are deeply concerned about
violence, poverty, ecological disaster and are
insisting that religions be actively engaged in
these issues
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May split rather than unify humanity
May devote more energy to preserving the
outer, institutional form of the religion than its
inner spirit
Those in religious power have the ability to
dominate and manipulate the faithful; people
may put their faith in unethical or misguided
spiritual leaders.
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May lead to an exaggeration of guilt in people
with perfectionist or paranoid tendencies; may
become a form of escapism; may be
psychologically harmful to some
A potential center for political power, and may
be used as a rallying point for wars against
other peoples or nations
Re-lig-ion
 “bind/tie back,” “bind together” (to be bound)
(“Yoga” = to Unite)
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“re-connect”
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To a Higher Power
To other people, in community
To the world around us
With ourselves
IntellectualIntellectual
- Emotional - Physical
Religion is a way of thinking about:
 Origins (where did we come from?)
 Purpose/meaning (why are we here?)
 Destiny (where are we going? what
happens when we die?)
 Who we are (the nature of human nature)
 Who/what God is (the nature of Ultimate
Reality)
The basis for our beliefs & doctrine, expressed
through myth, scripture, philosophy,
theology
Religion is a way of feeling:
rejoicing
faith
peace
love
awe
gratitude
guilt
bliss
appreciation
joy
ecstasy
fear
hope
reverence
Religion is a way of acting, of living, a social
system:
 Spiritual practices: meditation,
chanting, prayer, ritual
 Physical forms: art and architecture,
ritual objects, statues, icons, etc.
 Communal celebrations:
rites of passage, holidays
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Social regulation: morals & ethics,
prohibitions & taboos
Institutions/organizations/communities:
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Leaders (gurus/priests/ministers) & followers
(disciples, laity)
Hierarchies, obedience & discipline (monastic
communities)
History
Thinking about the religion you are
most familiar with (likely your own or, if
you are non-religious, that you have observed
among family, friends, or neighbors)…
Identify several examples of each
dimension of religion. Why do you
identify these examples as you do?
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The church building, as a physical structure, is
obviously part of the physical dimension of religion.
Celebration of Passover, as a holiday observed in
community with family and friends, commemorating
an ancient event in the history of the Jewish
community, is an example of the practice & social subdimensions of the physical dimension of religion.
I feel uplifted (feeling dimension) when we
(social/physical dimension) sing songs (practice/
physical dimension) of praise (feeling dimension)
When the preacher gives her sermon
(practice/physical) I use my intellect to try to
understand (intellectual dimension) the message and
how it relates to my life.
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the service or worship of God or the
supernatural - Webster’s New Collegiate
Dictionary
a specific system of faith and worship
– Oxford English Dictionary
a set of symbolic forms and acts which relate
man to the ultimate condition of his existence –
Robert Bellah
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Beliefs, attitudes, emotions, behavior, etc.,
constituting man’s relationship with the powers
and principles of the universe
– Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary
Belief in and/or worship of God or gods
– World Book Dictionary
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Belief in and reverence for a supernatural
power or powers regarded as creator and
governor of the universe; a personal or
institutionalized system grounded in such belief
and worship – YourDictionary.com
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[the seeking] of divine truth, exploring who we
are, why we’re here, and how we should live Joel Beversluis, ed., Sourcebook of the world’s
Religions
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belief that there is an unseen order, and that
our supreme good lies in harmoniously
adjusting ourselves thereto – William James
The common folk
 Philosophers
 Sociologists
 Theologians
 Anthropologists
 Psychologists
 Historians
 Critics
Everyone’s got an agenda and a limited
perspective that will influence how they
perceive religion
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Substantive or essentialist definitions
characterize religion by some basic essence
which is common to all religious systems, but
not to any non-religious systems. They say
what religion is:
“Belief in invisible superhuman power
together with feelings and practices that flow
from such a belief “
Functionalist definitions focus on the way
religion operates or functions in human life.
They say what religion does:
“A set of beliefs and practices which serve to
subordinate us to something superior or holy
in order to justify the events that control our
lives”
Both Substantive and Functional:
“a system of belief and worship which usually
incorporates a code of ethics. Religion fulfills
the human need for a relationship with the
creative, spiritual force of the universe.”
- Pope John Paul II Cultural Center “Gallery of Faith”
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…the seeking of transcendent meaning that
gives our lives value and puts us in touch with
the deeper currents of existence... Religion
helps people to cultivate an appreciation of the
holiness of humanity and teaches us to respect
the sacredness of life and the world.
- Karen Armstrong, Battle for God, pp. 199-201
Biased, too narrow or limited:
“a specific system of belief in God, doctrines,
etc. God’s relation to humanity and the
universe” (Western/Christian bias)
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Religion is a lot more than just belief
There are many systems generally considered
to be “religions” that do not fit with this
definition (they do not believe in or relate to a
god or gods) (use more generic language)
Too broad or inclusive:
“a system of beliefs and practices directed to
the ultimate concern of society”
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Are economic or political systems “religions”?
What kind of “ultimate concern”? What kind of
beliefs? What kind of practices?
Definitions that are too general (generic) may
not be very useful
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Identify several “familial” traits shared by many
religions…
What comes to mind when
you hear the word “religion”?
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Belief in a higher power (be it a person or
principle)
Surrender to the supreme power
An ethic of reciprocity (the Golden Rule)
Worship (prayer or other such practices)
Belief in the human spirit (soul)
Belief in other worlds (beyond life in this world,
afterlife, reincarnation, etc.)
Paths to God that can effect a positive change
in human lives
- Pope John Paul II Cultural Center “Gallery of Faith”
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Do not insist that every religion must share
every trait in common
May include traits shared by non-religious
systems
Tend to suggest that the more traits a given
system involves, the more likely we can
consider it a “religion”; the fewer traits a given
system shares the less likely we may be to
consider it a “religion”
Is it or is it not a “religion”?
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The Nacirema?
Secular Humanism?
Confucianism?
Communism?
How can we make a determination?
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Deductive reasoning: begin with a definition
and see if the system fits
Inductive reasoning: compare and contrast a
variety of systems provisionally considered
“religious” and “non-religious” and then draw
some conclusions to arrive at a definition:
What do most (if not all) “religions” have in
common? What is it that makes something a
“religion”?
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Perspective/Agenda
Substantive
Functionalist
Narrow/biased
Broad/vague
Cluster/Multidimensional
Inductive
Deductive
“Religion is a system of activities and beliefs
directed toward that which is perceived to be
of sacred value and transforming power”
Is this definition:
 Too limited? (why?)
 Too broad or vague? (why?)
 Substantive? (where?)
 Functionalist? (where?)
 Biased? (why?)
“Religion is a set of beliefs that spark the
formation of communities of faith which act out
those beliefs in order to heal themselves and
our broken world”
Is this definition:
 Too limited? (why?)
 Too broad or vague? (why?)
 Substantive? (where?)
 Functionalist? (where?)
 Biased? (why?)
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How is the study of religion different from the study of subjects
such as mathematics or other sciences? How best can we approach
our study when religions make claims with which we may or may
not agree?
Explain what a myth is, and describe some of the different ways
that the function of myth has been explained.
Give two examples of scientific materialist explanations of
religion. To what extent are such explanations useful in
understanding religion? What aspects of religion might they miss?
What is involved in the historical-critical study of scriptures? How
does this approach differ from an absolutist approach?
In trying to understand the negative side of organized religion,
some people have argued that religious violence is carried out
when people misuse or misinterpret their religion. Others,
however, argue that the widespread nature of religious violence
suggests that religion itself may be the problem. Which view do
you find more convincing? Why?