Evaluating Arguments and Claims
What is an Argument?
Definition:
• An argument presents logical
reasons and evidence to support a
viewpoint
Purpose:
• To persuade others to share ones
opinions and beliefs by
supporting these beliefs with
evidence and examples.
Argument Example
• Claim:
– Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to
one’s health
• Support:
– Cigarette smoking causes more than
440,000 deaths each year in the
United States. This is about one in
five deaths
– Smoking causes about 90% (or 9 out of
10) of all lung cancer deaths in men
and 80% (or 8 out of 10) of all lung
cancer deaths in women. More women die
from lung cancer each year than from
breast cancer.
– Cigarette smoking can cause cancer
almost anywhere in your body,
including: Bladder, bone marrow,
Parts of an Argument
• ISSUE - problem or controversy
about which people disagree
• CLAIM - the position on the
issue (ASSERTION)
• SUPPORT - reasons and evidence
that the claim is reasonable
and should be accepted
• COUNTER-ARGUMENT - opposing
viewpoints
Types of Claims
Definition
• CLAIM OF FACT - statement that
can be proven or verified by
observation or research
Purpose:
• To support ones viewpoint with
factual evidence. As a result,
the argument is more convincing.
Example:
•“Within ten years, destruction of
rain
forests will cause hundreds of
Definition Types of Claims
• CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one
thing
or idea is better or more
desirable than another.
Purpose
• Claims of value help sway the
reader by convincing them to
consider a “better” option
Example
• “Requiring community service in
high school will produce more
community-aware graduates. If
Types of Claims
Definition
• CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests
what should or ought to be
done to solve a problem.
Purpose
•To convince individuals to take
what the author believes is the
best possible action to solve a
problem or issue.
Definition
• “To reduce school violence,
more gun and metal detectors
Types of Support: How an author supports
his or her viewpoint
• REASON - a general statement
that supports a claim.
• EVIDENCE - consists of facts,
statistics, experiences,
comparisons, and examples that
show why the claim is valid.
• EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that
are targeted toward needs or
values that readers are likely
to care about.
Strategies for Reading an Argument
Think Before you Read!
• What does the title suggest?
Preview!
• Who is the author, and what are
his or her qualifications?
• What is the date of publication?
• What do I already know about the
issue?
Read Actively!
• Read once for an initial
impression.
• Read the argument several more
times.
Evaluating Arguments
Definition:
• To evaluate means to judge or
assess.
Purpose:
• It is important for a reader to
be able to process information
given and decide if the
information is factual, leading or
biased in order to form an
opinion.
Example:
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
• Evaluate Types of Evidence
– Is it sufficient to support the
claim?
– Is the evidence relevant to the
claim?
– Can the evidence be proven as fact,
not opinion?
• Is there bias?
– Personal experiences may be biased
– Watch for leading language
• Words that have strong positive or
negative connotations like “wise” or
“terrible”.
– Did the author omit (leave out)
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
• Opposing Viewpoints or Counter-argument
– Does the author address opposing
viewpoints clearly and fairly?
– Does the author refute the opposing
viewpoint with logic and relevant
evidence?
• Advertising or Propaganda Techniques
– Bandwagon technique: “Everyone is
doing it! You should too!”
– Plain Folk: the “average” person uses
this or a politician can relate to the
typical American
– Celebrity or Doctor Endorsement: Adam
Strategies for Evaluating an Argument
• Identify the claim.
• Outline the reasons to support
the claim.
• What types of evidence are
used?
• Evaluate the evidence. Is their
enough evidence provided and
does it make sense?
• What emotional appeals are
used?
• Is there language with strong
positive or negative
connotations?
Author’s Bias
Definition:
• Bias is a preference for one
side of an argument.
• When writers are said to have a
bias, it means they allow their
opinion on a topic to influence
what or how they write about
that topic.
Purpose:
• Bias is often used to help sway
Examples of Bias:
The author’s bias is against
____________
o Example: Originally, Mayor Bloomberg
made the inconsiderate decision to
not cancel the New York City
marathon.
The author’s bias in favor of
____________
o Example: Mayor Bloomberg made the
wise decision to cancel the New York
City marathon after Hurricane Sandy.
The author reveals no personal