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Herding Practices in the Ditched
Villages of the Neolithic Tavoliere
(Apulia, South-east Italy)
A Vicious Circle? The Isotopic Evidence
MARY ANNE TAFURI, JOHN ROBB, MARIA GIOVANNA BELCASTRO,
VALENTINA MARIOTTI, PAOLA IACUMIN,
ANTONIETTA DI MATTEO AND TAMSIN O’CONNELL
Introduction
THE UNDERSTANDING OF NEOLITHISATION IN EUROPE entails models and
perspectives that are far from finding a consensus. Most archaeologists, however,
agree upon the idea that the very notion of the Neolithic has shifted from being a
material culture-related concept to a way of life (cf. Halstead 2011). Despite the
large-scale models proposed for exploring the introduction of farming to Europe,
most of the time the Neolithic is approached at a small-scale level.
In the Mediterranean, the understanding of Neolithisation is no different, with
an extremely fragmented picture, which often relies on a bottom-up approach. In
Italy, the spread of farming is traditionally associated with key areas such as the
south-east coast of the peninsula, where a great number of studies have concentrated. In the Tavoliere plain of northern Apulia (Figure 8.1), between the late
1940s and 1950s, a series of aerial photographs revealed the traces of buried
contexts, which later were revealed to be the archaeological evidence of an intense
occupation of the area already at very early phases of the Neolithic (Bradford 1949,
1950, 1957). A large number of the so-called villaggi trincerati, medium- to largesized ditched villages were identified and later excavated (Tinè 1975, 1983; Cassano
and Manfredini 1983, 2005; Tunzi Sisto et al. 2006). On the basis of plant and
animal remains, they were traditionally associated with food-producing economies,
characterised by intensive farming and increasingly specialised herding (Pessina
and Tinè 2008). The strong reliance on agriculture of these first Neolithic inhabitants
and the importance of early crops as well as livestock and other foodstuffs
constructed the diet and social practices of these human populations. The existence
Proceedings of the British Academy 198, 0–00. © The British Academy 2014.
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of different econiches in a rather small area, which includes the alluvial plain
(the Tavoliere itself), the seacoast, and highlands such as the Gargano and the
Preappennines, favour an approach based on isotopic studies. Stable carbon and
nitrogen isotope analysis are among the best ways to identify and define the different
isoscapes in Neolithic south-east Italy; they can also contribute to the reconstruction
of economic models for early and middle Neolithic populations, by directly
assessing food consumption.
Despite the large number of sites registered in the Tavoliere, only a few have
been excavated systematically and can provide human and animal skeletal remains
for an isotope investigation. For this study we selected three sites, all dated to the
last centuries of the sixth millennium BC (approximately 5500–5400 BC); two of
them (Passo di Corvo and Masseria Candelaro) are ditched villages located in the
proximity of the Candelaro river, while the third (Grotta Scaloria) is a cave used
for ritual and funerary purposes placed at the northernmost limit of the Tavoliere,
at the foot of the Gargano mountains. For comparative analysis, our dataset includes
isotopic values from early to middle Neolithic sites in the regions surrounding the
Tavoliere (Figure 8.1).
Site descriptions
The site of Passo di Corvo lies on a terrace of the Amendola plain, about 10 km
north-east of the city of Foggia and 25 km south-west of Manfredonia. The area
of the village is about 40 ha, inside of which a number of C-shaped ditches were
excavated between 1966–1982 (Tinè 1983). An outer ditch encloses an area of at
least 90–130 ha (Figure 8.2). Two areas contained the human remains of at least
12 individuals, with one further individual (a female; t.11) found inside one of the
ditches. The site should be considered as exceptional within the Neolithic evidence
of the Tavoliere. The overall size of the area, and the over 80 C-compounds are
unique. According to Tinè (1983, 183–9), at its peak of occupancy the site would
have housed 30–35 families, structurally organised so as to allow the planning
and construction of the massive ditch that limits the occupied area. This interpretation is today debated and the very function of the C-compounds is questioned
(Monaco, pers. comm.). In any case we are probably looking at several groups of
sedentary families, thriving on an agricultural economy with the contribution of
the herding of domestic species such as cattle, ovicaprids and pigs. The very role
of the ditches was believed by the excavators (Tinè 1983) to be functional to the
maintenance of the village, either for draining water or for acquiring soil for farming purposes; again, later approaches have questioned this interpretation and
the function of these structures was seen in a socio-cultural perspective, where
ditches might have favoured groups’ self-identity and other forms of social cohesion (Cassano and Manfredini 1983). A ritual function has also been put forward
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Figure 8.1 Map of the Apulian Tavoliere with sites investigated (circles = sites fully investigated;
squares = comparative sites).
(Antoniazzi et al. 1990); most perspectives are plausible and, often, compatible
(for a review see Skeates 2000).
Located about 14 km south-west of Manfredonia, Masseria Candelaro is placed
on a small elevation (Coppa in Apulian) on the terrace of the river Candelaro, today
about 1.5 km away. The site was excavated between the 1970s–1990s (Cassano
and Manfredini 1983, 2005). Various ditches were brought to light, the largest
measuring about 300 m in diameter. The earliest evidences are dated to the Early
Neolithic. The site revealed several dwelling units, but the excavators suggest that
during the middle Neolithic parts of the ditches were used for funerary purposes.
Several burials, together with a cache with eight skulls, were excavated at the site
(Salvadei and Santandrea 2003).
The Scaloria Cave is well known within Italian prehistory as a Neolithic ritual
site. It is located about 2 km inland, close to the modern town of Manfredonia, at
the foot of the Gargano mountains. The site was excavated in 1978–1979 (Tinè and
Isetti 1980a, 1980b; Gimbutas 1981), but results were never fully published. While
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Figure 8.2 The plan of the ditched village of Passo di Corvo, the inner ditch (with C-compounds) and
the outer ditch are visible (after Tinè 1983, modified).
the lower part of the cave (Scaloria bassa) was associated with a ritual function,
excavations of the upper part of the cave (Scaloria alta) yielded an assemblage of
commingled, highly fragmented, human remains. Since 2007, the Scaloria archives
and collections are being re-analysed. The human skeletal assemblage counts at
least 31 individuals (Knüsel et al. in press), with a systematic isotopic study carried
out (Tafuri et al. in press).
Stable carbon and nitrogen analysis
Isotope content in bone collagen can help to determine the relative protein
contribution to human and animal diet over a period of about ten years preceding
death (Ambrose and Norr 1993, Hedges et al. 2007). Carbon isotope ratio (13C) is
able to distinguish between marine (13C enriched) and terrestrial ( 13C depleted)
diet. It can also reveal the type of plant consumed, with particular reference to the
kind of photosynthetic pathway followed (C4 plants are normally 13C enriched
while C3 species are 13C depleted). In Europe, where C4 plants are infrequent,
carbon isotopic ratios are also used to assess the intake of marine foods, since marine
environments are enriched in 13C relative to temperate terrestrial ecosystems.
Nitrogen isotopic values reflect the trophic level of an organism, considering that
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there is an approximate 3–5‰ increase in 15N along the food chain (Minagawa
and Wada 1984, Hedges and Reynard 2007). An individual’s nitrogen isotopic
value indicates its position in the terrestrial food chain (herbivore, omnivore,
carnivore), which for humans can be used as an indication of the relative importance
of plant or animal protein in the diet (O’Connell and Hedges 1999). The type of
animal protein consumed cannot be distinguished, that is, the difference between
meat and secondary products, nor its quality (Privat et al. 2005, Katzenberg and
Krouse 1989). Nitrogen isotopic values can also distinguish marine/freshwater
versus terrestrial food intake, since aquatic species have much higher nitrogen
isotopic values (Schoeninger et al. 1983).
For this study, we collected 82 samples of human bone and 27 of terrestrial
animal bone for analysis (Table 8.1). Collagen extraction followed a modified
Longin (1971) method (Brown et al. 1988). In brief, cortical bone (0.5 g) was
cleaned by sand abrasion and demineralised in 0.5M aq. HCl at 4ºC for several
days. The samples were then rinsed to neutral pH and gelatinised in pH3 HCl at
70ºC for 48 hours. The collagen solution was filtered off with 5–8 µm Ezee filters,
frozen and then freeze-dried. Each of the collagen extracts was weighed (c. 1 mg)
in triplicate into tin capsules, and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios were
measured using an automated elemental analyser coupled in continuous-flow mode
to an isotope-ratio-monitoring mass-spectrometer (Costech elemental analyser
coupled to a Thermo Finnigan MAT253 mass spectrometer). Analysis was carried
out at the Godwin Labatory, University of Cambridge. Based on replicate analyses
of international and laboratory standards, measurement errors are less than ±0.2‰
for δ13C and δ15N. The collagen yield, the percentage of carbon and nitrogen, and
the atomic C:N ratio of each sample were also recorded to check collagen quality
(DeNiro 1985, Ambrose 1990, van Klinken 1999).
Results
Results of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes ratio are reported in Table 8.1. At
Masseria Candelaro mean carbon values are —19.2‰ for the humans and —21.1‰
for the animals, while mean nitrogen ratios are 9.3‰ and 6.3‰ for humans and
animals respectively. At Passo di Corvo, mean carbon values are —19.3‰ for
humans and —19.7‰ for fauna samples; mean nitrogen values are unexpectedly
high with 13.3‰ and 10.2‰ for the humans and animals respectively. Grotta
Scaloria mean ratios appear to be in line with those of Masseria Candelaro; carbon
values are —19.3‰ and —19.9‰, while mean nitrogen ratios are 8.4‰ and 6.0‰
for human and faunal specimens respectively. At all sites, there is a >2‰ nitrogen
enrichment between animals and humans (mostly herbivores).
The 13C values suggest a predominantly terrestrial diet, based on the consumption
of C3 plants (Figure 8.3); faunal specimens show greater variability, which is
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Table 8.1 Stable carbon (13C) and nitrogen (15N) isotope data of human and animal bone
collagen. C:N ratio is reported as a collagen quality indicator.
Sample
Species
δ13C(PDB)
δ15N(air)
C:N
Passo di Corvo
PC T3
PC T8
PC T4
PC T5B
PC T7
PC T9
PC T6
PC T11
PC T10
PC T10_
PC T11_
PC T12
PC T13
PC no code
PC Bos_1
PC Bos _2
PC Ovis _3
PC Ovis _4
PC Ovis _5
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
cattle
cattle
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
–19.2
–19.1
–19.2
–19.2
–19.0
–19.1
–19.0
–19.3
–19.0
–19.3
–19.1
–19.2
–19.1
–20.9
–18.3
–20.0
–20.5
–20.3
–19.3
13.0
12.9
12.9
12.6
13.9
14.6
13.5
12.5
15.4
14.1
11.9
13.2
13.8
11.2
11.1
9.3
9.8
9.3
11.7
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
4.7
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
Grotta Scaloria
GS–2
GS-3
GS-4
GS-5
GS-6
GS-7
GS-8
GS-9
GS-11
GS-12
GS-13
GS-14
GS-16
GS-17
GS-18
GS-19
GS-20
GS-21
GS-22
GS-23
GS-24
GS-25
GS-26
GS-27
GS-28
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
–19.6
–19.5
–19.8
–19.6
–19.5
–19.3
–19.2
–19.4
–19.0
–19.3
–19.1
–19.1
–19.2
–19.4
–19.1
–19.2
–19.5
–19.5
–19.1
–19.5
–19.9
–19.2
–19.0
–19.0
–19.3
7.5
7.9
6.9
9
9.4
6.8
8.7
8.3
7.7
7.9
8.6
8.9
8.1
7.9
8.9
7.3
7.3
8.1
7.3
8.2
8.2
8.8
8.2
8.8
8.7
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
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Table 8.1 Continued
Sample
Species
δ13C(PDB)
δ15N(air)
C:N
GS-29
GS-30
GS-31
GS-32
GS-33
GS-34
GS-35
GS-37
GS-38
GS-39
GS-40
GS-41
GS-A
GS-B
GS-C
GS-D
GS-E
GS-F
GS188
GS–42
GS-43
GS-44
GS-45
GS-46
GS-47
GS-48
GS-51
GS-52
GS-54
GS-55
GS-56
GS-57
GS-58
GS-59
GS-60
GS-61
GS-62
GS-63
GS-65
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
cattle
cattle
pig
red deer
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
cattle
sheep/goat
roe deer
red deer
red deer
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
sheep/goat
red deer
–19.1
–19.2
–19.4
–19.2
–19.0
–19.5
–19.8
–19.0
–19.5
–19.8
–19.1
–19.3
–19.6
–19.3
–19.8
–19.8
–19.4
–18.9
–19.2
–17.7
–19.4
–19.7
–20.4
–20.4
–20.8
–20.0
–20.7
–20.3
–18.7
–20.3
–17.6
–17.7
–21.2
–20.5
–21.1
–20.4
–20.2
–20.7
–21.1
8.2
8.1
8.6
8.6
9.2
8.9
8.1
9
8
8.1
8.5
8.3
9.2
9.0
8.6
10.6
8.8
9.5
8.9
7.2
5.6
5.4
7.7
5.1
6.3
6.4
6.3
5
6.5
6.9
5.8
6.2
4.7
4.8
5.3
6.4
7.9
6
4.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
Masseria Candelaro
MC 1
MC 2
MC 3
MC 4
MC 5
MC 6
MC 7
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
–19.4
–19.4
–19.4
–18.9
–19.3
–19.2
–19.2
9.0
10.3
9.4
9.3
10.1
9.2
9.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.0
3.4
3.5
3.4
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Table 8.1 Continued
Sample
Species
δ13C(PDB)
δ15N(air)
C:N
MC 8
MC 9
MC 10
MC 11
MC 12
MC 13
MC 14
MC 15
MC 16
MC 17
MC 18
MC 19
MC 20
MC 21
MC 22
MC 23
MC 24
MCXVII
MCXVII
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
human
sheep/goat
pig
–19.1
–19.2
–19.2
–18.9
–18.7
–18.9
–19.2
–19.3
–19.5
–19.0
–19.3
–18.8
–19.4
–19.4
–19.3
–18.2
–19.9
–21.5
–20.8
8.8
9.8
10.3
11.4
9.2
9.0
8.5
9.5
8.6
8.9
7.9
8.8
9.4
8.8
9.2
8.2
9.2
6.4
6.3
3.0
3.4
3.4
2.9
3.2
3.4
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.0
3.7
3.2
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
δ15N
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8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
–22.0
–21.0
–20.0
–19.0
–18.0
–17.0
δ13C
PC human
MC humans
GS humans
GS sus
PC Ovicaprid
MC ovicaprid
GS ovicaprid
GS equs
PC bos
MC sus
GS bos
GS cervus
Figure 8.3 Stable carbon (13C) and nitrogen (15N) isotope data of humans and animals from Passo di
Corvo (PC), Masseria Candelaro (MC) and Grotta Scaloria (GS).
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unsurprising, especially considering the presence of wild fauna in the dataset
(namely, the deer, though the cattle and ovicaprids at Grotta Scaloria show the
broadest range). At Masseria Candelaro and Grotta Scaloria 15N is again indicative
of a terrestrial diet, with the consumption of animal proteins by the humans. At
Masseria Candelaro higher 15N and 13C in the humans as opposed to the fauna might
indicate the contribution of marine resources to the diet, but faunal data come
from only two specimens (an ovicaprid and a swine), which makes our interpretation
only tentative.
Passo di Corvo shows 15N (for both human and animal specimens) that is
exceptionally high. Such nitrogen values are normally associated with a significant
consumption of marine resources, but two aspects challenge this interpretation:
(1) 15N is high for the humans and the herbivores analysed (two cattle and three
ovicaprids), which would imply that both humans and animals at the site consumed
aquatic species; and (2) high nitrogen ratios do not correlate with 13C-enriched
values – a condition that normally occurs when marine resources are consumed –
while, on the contrary, carbon data at Passo di Corvo are consistent with those at
the other sites, showing the normal consumers-consumed offset (c. 1‰).
We can include in the dataset mean nitrogen values of human and animal samples
from early to middle Neolithic ditched villages surrounding those of the Tavoliere,
namely Ripa Tetta, in the northernmost portion of the plain; Tirlecchia and Trasano
in the province of Materia; Malerba and S. Barbara in the area of Bari, and Poggio
Imperiale north of the Gargano mountains (Figure 8.4). At all sites 15N is consistent
18
16
14
δ15N
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
PC
PC
hum fauna
(n=13) (n=5)
MC
MC
hum fauna
(n=24) (n=2)
GS
GS
hum fauna
(n=45) (n=23)
RT
hum
(n=2)
Mal/ TIR TRA
SB hum hum
hum (n=4) (n=7)
(n=4)
PIM PIM
hum fauna
(n=4) (n=3)
Figure 8.4 Mean stable nitrogen ratios (15N) with ranges for both human and animal specimens at
Passo di Corvo (PC), Masseria Candelaro (MC) and Grotta Scaloria (GS), together with mean
comparative values from Ripa Tetta (RT)*, Malerba/S. Barbara (Mal/SB)*, Tirlecchia (TIR)*, Trasano
(TRA)* and Poggio Imperiale (PIM)*. * (Tafuri et al., unpublished data).
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with data from Masseria Candelaro and Scaloria. High 15N values – analogous to
the ones obtained at Passo di Corvo – were registered by Lelli et al. (2012) at Ripa
Tetta, in contrast with the data we obtained at the same site, although on different
individuals; they interpreted such high nitrogen values as indicative of elevated
protein intake, mostly in consideration of the animal/human offset.
We cannot rule out contamination as the possible cause for high 15N in the bone
samples at Passo di Corvo; modern nitrates used for farming could have altered
the nitrogen composition of the soils in the area (Heaton 1986), though both the
areas of Passo di Corvo and Masseria Candelaro – only a few kilometres apart –
have been interested by farming activities and would have similarly suffered from
soil contamination. The proximity to the sea might also have caused high 15N values
in plant species, as observed elsewhere (Virginia and Delwiche 1982, Heaton 1987),
but again it would be difficult to explain how this had an effect on Passo di Corvo
samples but not on those from the other sites considered, all similarly located near
the coast.
We tentatively interpret the data from Passo di Corvo as the result of a manuring
effect occurring at the site. Animal manure has high 15N because of the greater
loss of the more volatile nitrogen isotope (14N), with relative enrichment of the
heavier one (15N) in the residual ammonia which turns into 15N-enriched nitrates;
such nitrates are then taken up by plants, triggering a high 15N cycle (Kreitler and
Jones 1975, Kendall 1998), which alters the nitrogen content of the tissues of the
plant consumers.
What might have favoured a nitrogen cycle at Passo di Corvo can be linked to
the size and the plan of the site. Within the Tavoliere, among the over 500 ditched
village identified (Skeates 2000), Passo di Corvo is the only one that reaches such
an extraordinary size; its outer ditch encircles an area of approximately 90–130
ha, while other sites rarely exceed 30–40 ha (Tinè 1983). What is of great interest,
moreover, is the plan of the site with a smaller ditch to limit the typical area with
the C-compounds, and a larger ditch, which encloses an extraordinarily large portion
of land with no evidence of recognisable structures (Figure 8.2). It is unquestionable
that such an area had a function connected to the sustenance of the population.
Whatever the function of the Tavoliere ditches might have been, they limited a
piece of land within a wider landscape; at other villages (Masseria Candelaro, but
also Tirlecchia, Trasano, Malerba, Ripa Tetta and Poggio Imperiale), such limited
spaces did not allow for the tending of domestic animals, so that daily/seasonal
activities would have moved to areas outside the borders of the village. At Passo
di Corvo this might not have been necessary, as the large encircled area could
guarantee a considerable plot of land (Figure 8.2), and might have been devoted
to both herding and farming activities. This is even more convincing if we consider that according to the excavators (Tinè 1983, 184) the creation of the ditches
can be ascribed to a single moment (phase IVa1), so that the village reached its
maximum extension at a very early stage of its life.
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Our isotope data seem to be consistent with Tinè’s idea that the community at
Passo di Corvo was devoted to both farming and herding, with the C-compounds
space, the larger encircled area and the zone immediately near the ditch occupied
on a (seasonal) cycle for keeping animals and growing crops (Tinè 1983, 1985).
This scenario would correspond to Bogaard’s (2012) reconstruction of Neolithic
farming on long-established plots of land, which would inevitably require actions
to enhance soil productivity, that is, manuring. The practice of manuring would
have implied a long-term investment in a portion of territory that in most cases
would have been claimed through visible structures (in this case, the outer ditch;
Bogaard et al. 2013).
Our interpretation seems to agree also with a model recently proposed by
Monaco (2011) on the carrying capacity of the Tavoliere, according to which the
size of Passo di Corvo outer ditch could have supported a combined farming/herding
exploiting system, which did not require the seasonal movement of animals. It is
worth considering that, within the Tavoliere, Passo di Corvo lies south of the river
Candelaro, which during the sixth millennium BC might have created a natural
barrier to the highlands of the Gargano, that could instead be easily reached by the
groups of Masseria Candelaro and, possibly, Grotta Scaloria (Caldara and Pennetta
2002, Monaco 2011, Fiorentino et al. 2013).
If we were to use a cautious estimate of two tons of dung produced by a cow
per year (Geden et al. 1990), it would require 15 cows and about double this number
of sheep/goat or swine to cover an area of about 100 ha on Wulff’s (1966, 270)
calculation of approximately 1.5 tons per hectare per year required for manuring
purposes. This calculation is pessimistic when compared to numbers proposed
elsewhere (Tinè 1983, Rowly-Conwy 1981, Monaco 2011). In any case, the
permanence of the animals on the site would have reduced the need to transport
the dung although they could have been used as draught animals occasionally.
As Bogaard’s suggests, ‘it appears plausible that a household keeping a few
cattle for meat and perhaps milk, as well as a few sheep/goat and pigs, could, by
strategic folding of animals on stubble and spreading manure as well as household
refuse, manage to replenish nutrients in intensively cultivated plots’ (Bogaard 2004,
46). At Passo di Corvo, unlike at other sites, this practice might have been performed
in an enclosed area, a place – spatially defined – where work, but also social relations, might have been concentrated. It is difficult, at this stage, to affirm whether
the use of animal dung at the village was intentional rather than unintentional; other
data (for example, from micromorphology, and isotopic analysis of plant remains)
will help to refine our interpretation in the future, however it is suggestive of ‘locally
adapted’ subsistence practices (sensu Skeates 2000, 177).
Whether this ‘vicious circle’ at Passo di Corvo was the result of an intentional
action to improve soil productivity, or rather the outcome of a practice that did not
entail a strategy, it is difficult to determine at this point. It is however extremely
interesting that at a very same moment in the sixth millennium, such diverse
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practices in what we have hitherto believed to be a homogeneous archaeological
landscape (i.e., the ditched villages of the Tavoliere plain) were being practised.
Despite the many new perspectives put forward, for many archaeologists the
Neolithic has remained a ‘package’ that only rarely has shown its diversity. In
southern Europe this is becoming less convincing, as we are confronted with
new scenarios that differ from the traditional view of a monolithic process of
Neolithisation. There is no ubiquitous spread of farming communities over
increasingly larger territories in Italy, perhaps because of the composite nature of
the landscape made of different and often very diverse ecological niches. In the
south-eastern regions of the Peninsula, for a very long time, the spread of farming
communities remains particularly marked within key areas (Radina 2002). This
archaeological landscape demonstrates a great deal of complexity within the
larger comprehensive model. To name but a few, along with a local raw material
procurement activity, such as that attested at Masseria Candelaro and other coeval
sites, stands the impressive system of corridors and chambers of the Defensola
flint mine complex (Tarantini and Galiberti 2011). The ritual cave of Scaloria stands
out for complexity and longevity, so does the site of Passo di Corvo, as the largest
and more complex Neolithic village of south-eastern Italy. This dense network of
sites, impressive cult caves, large flint mines falls within a radius of only about 50
km.
It is likely that this set of ‘exceptionality’ within a rather homogeneous landscape
might mirror different forms of adaptations and specific socio-cultural organizations. Within this scenario we might explain the variety in the isotopic signatures
at the sites investigated: coeval villages located only a few kilometres apart, found
on a homogeneous model that would produce homogeneous archaeological
landscapes (i.e., material culture, settlement patterns) however engaging in manifold
economic practices within a shared background.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mike Hall and James Rolfe at the Godwin Lab, Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Cambridge for help with isotopic analyses. We thank
Catherine Kneale, Louise Butterworth, Alex Pryor, and Hazel Reade, McDonald
Institute for Archaeological Research, for help in sample preparation and analysis.
We are grateful to Fulvio Bartoli for the material from Ripa Tetta, Tirlecchia and
Trasano. We thank Sandro Sublimi Saponetti for the material from Malerba and
S. Barbara and Rocco Sanseverino for the material from Poggio Imperiale. Many
thanks to Emanuele Cancellieri for help with the images. Special thanks to Andrea
Monaco for comments and suggestions.
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