Bionics 6
Kevin Warwick
Human Enhancement
• Any attempt, temporary or permanent, to
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overcome the limitations of the human body, by
natural or artificial means.
The use of technological means to select or alter
human aptitudes and characteristics (whether or
not the alteration results in characteristics that lie
beyond the existing human range).
Is the technology used for non-therapeutic
purposes?
Some bioethicists restrict the term to the nontherapeutic application of — neuro-, cyber-, geneand nano- technologies to the human body.
Therapy
• Where an individual has a problem, they
could (individually) be enhanced by
attempting to restore them to the ‘norm’
• Some regard this as ‘human enhancement’
• Example: Hook for a hand amputee
• We must acknowledge that some people
think this way
• The view here is enhancement above the
‘norm’
Differences
• Directly repairing a problem – Therapy
(not enhancement)
• Extending a capability – enhancement
• Endowing with a different ability - ??
• Example 1: Springy legs to replace
amputated legs
• Example 2: Ultrasonic input to replace
vision for the blind
• Therapy/enhancement is not clear
Technologies
• Embryo selection using genetic diagnosis
• Gene Therapy for genetic modifications
• Performance enhancing drugs
• Neural implants
• Plastic surgery
Embryo Selection
• Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (aka Embryo
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Screening) refers to diagnostic procedures that are
performed on embryos prior to implantation.
PGD is an alternative to prenatal diagnosis.
It avoids selective pregnancy termination as the method
makes it highly likely that the baby will be free of the
disease under consideration.
PGD requires in vitro fertilization (IVF) to obtain embryos
for evaluation.
Preimplantation genetic screening is used to denote
diagnostic screening procedures that do not look for a
specific disease but use PGD techniques to identify
embryos at risk.
Ethical Concerns - 1
• The technique can be used to determine the gender of
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the embryo, and can be used to select embryos of one
gender in the context of “family balancing”. It may be
possible to make other "social selection" choices in the
future. The approach is though less destructive than
fetal deselection during the pregnancy.
Costs are substantial and insurance coverage may not be
available. PGD widens the gap between people who can
afford the procedure versus a majority of patients who
may benefit but cannot obtain the service.
PGD has the potential to screen for genetic issues
unrelated to medical necessity. The “designer baby” is
closely related to PGD.
Gene Therapy
• Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology,
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genetic modification/manipulation and gene splicing
are terms that are applied to the manipulation of genes.
This implies the process is outside the organism’s natural
reproductive process.
It involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of
DNA into cells to cause a protein to reach desired effects.
The aim is to introduce new characteristics or attributes
physiologically or physically, e.g. introducing a new trait,
enhancing existing ones, producing a new protein or enzyme.
No reports yet of direct success with human enhancement.
Drugs
• In sports, the use of performance-enhancing drugs that are
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forbidden by the organizers.
There is also blood doping by blood transfusion or use of
hormone treatments.
Doping is considered to be unethical by most international
sports organizations (IOC). The reasons are the health
threat of performance enhancing drugs and equality of
opportunity of the athletes.
Tetrahydrogestrinone and modafinil are currently causing
controversy.
Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances ten
days before the start of the 2004 summer olympics.
Improves performance? But is it really enhancement?
Plastic Surgery
• Plastic surgery is a medical technique to
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change the appearance and function of a
person's body.
Procedures include cosmetic enhancements as
well as functionally reconstructive operations.
Where aesthetics are considered more important
than functionality, plastic surgery is sometimes
referred to as cosmetic surgery.
Most procedures involve both aesthetic and
functional elements.
Plastic Surgery 2
• Correction of disfigurement/deformity – not
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enhancement
Restoration of impaired function – not
enhancement
Improvement of physical appearance enhancement
Tissue may be moved to fill a depression, to cover
a wound, or to improve appearance.
Tissue may be completely removed to alter the
contours of a feature.
Correction of a ‘perceived’ physical imperfection.
Psychological benefits (e.g. nose job) –
enhancement??
Neural Implants
• Brain implants (neural implants), are devices that
connect directly to a biological subject's brain or nervous
system.
• They are usually placed on the surface of the brain,
attached to the brain’s cortex or fired into the brain.
Conversely they could be fired in to the nervous system
or wrapped around the nervous system.
• A common purpose is establishing a prosthesis,
circumventing areas in the brain, which became
dysfunctional after a stroke or head injury. (sensory
substitution?)
• Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between
neural systems and computers, these are part of a wider
research field called brain computer interfaces.
Role
• Brain/neural implants electrically stimulate and/or record
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from small groups of neurons (very unlikely single
neurons) in the brain/NS.
This may be done when the functional associations of
these neurons are approximately known, however it is
also a way we can learn about such associations.
Because of the complexity of neural processing and the
lack of access to action potentials (insufficient
technology), the application of brain implants has been
seriously limited until recent years.
Advances in neurophysiology, computer processing
power and implant technology has moved things forward
recently.
Electrodes
• Several projects have demonstrated success at
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recording from the brains of animals for long
periods of time. In 1976, researchers at the NIH
(USA) (led by Ed Schmidt) made action potential
recordings of signals from Rhesus monkey motor
cortexes using 'hatpin' electrodes, including
consistent recordings for greater than three years
from the ‘best’ electrodes.
The 'hatpin' electrodes were made of pure iridium
and insulated with Parylene-c, materials that are
currently used in the Utah array. These same
electrodes are also used in visual prosthetics
research and other motor prosthetics.
History 1
• In 1870 Hitzig and Fritsch demonstrated that
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electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brains
of dogs could produce movements. Bartholow
showed the same to be true for humans in 1874.
In the early 1900’s Krause began to map human
brain areas of patients who had undergone
surgery.
In the 1950s Heath experimented with aggressive
mental patients, aiming to influence their moods
through electrical stimulation.
History 2
• Delgado demonstrated control of animal and human subjects'
behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the stimoceiver, a
device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that
modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure.
• Delgado llater wrote a popular book on mind control, called "Physical
Control of the Mind", he stated: "the feasibility of remote control of
activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...]
The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding
of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and
to provide practical systems suitable for human application.“
• In the 1950’s, the CIA funded research into mind control techniques.
Because he received funding for some research through the US Office
of Naval Research, it was suggested that Delgado also received
backing through the CIA for human research. He denied this claim in a
2005 article in Scientific American.
Breakthroughs
• Studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring
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throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination.
Control of physical devices by rat brains.
Monkeys controlling robotic arms.
Remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and
humans.
Remote control over the movements of cockroaches.
The first reported use of the Utah Array in a human for
bidirectional signalling - 2002.
A number of groups are now conducting preliminary
motor prosthetic implants in humans. These studies are
presently limited to several months by the longevity of
the implants.
Utah Array
• The Utah Array has, to date, been
implanted into a total of 3 humans.
• Only one is still alive!!
Brain Computer Interfaces
• Brain-computer interfaces also include
technology such as EEG arrays that allow
an interface between mind and machine
but do not require direct implantation of a
device.
• Question here is – with external
electrodes, is it human enhancement?
• Or is it the same as using a computer or
riding a bicycle?
Neural Implants - Enhancements
• What human enhancements have already
been demonstrated?
• What might be possible in the future?
Enhancements - 1
• 1999 – Philip Kennedy (Atlanta) at Neural
Signals Inc. – neurotropic implant into the
brain of a stroke patient.
• Allowed patient (Johnny Ray) to
communicate via a keyboard.
• 2004 – research ongoing for direct
translation of speech signals/phonemes.
Enhancements - 2
• 2002 – Utah array implanted into median
nerves KW/MG – University of Reading
• Extra sensory input
• Extending nervous system over the internet
• Direct communication telegraphy/telepathy
• Control of lights/vehicles by neural signals
alone
Enhancements - 3
• 2005 – Donoghue Implant (Brown University,
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Providence RI, USA)
Matt Nagle (a tetraplegic) controlled an artificial
hand using a BCI as part of a nine-month
human trial of Cyberkinetics Neurotechnology’s
BrainGate implant (Utah array).
Implanted in Nagle’s right motor cortex (arm
movement), the implant allowed Nagle to
control a robotic arm by thinking about moving
his hand as well as a computer cursor, lights and
TV.
Enhancement - 3
• http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid
=8086378151106871724&q=BrainGate&to
tal=10&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=se
arch&plindex=1
Future Enhancements
• Memory Upgrades
• Mathematical processors/implants
• Multi-dimensional links
• Visual encoders
• Encryption implants
• Human Language Translators
Ethical Concerns
• See White House Council on Bioethics
• Also European Commission – Group on
Ethics in Science and New Technologies
• Also PEEP
• We will deal with this later