Terry Jernigan

What We Thought We Knew
About Brain Structure
• Neuronal populations and their connections (the basic architecture of the brain) are established during the prenatal period.
• Soon after birth oligodendrocytes proliferate, differentiate, and wrap the connecting axons with insulating, fatty, sheaths of myelin.
• This more or less completes the development of the hardware, and little additional growth of the brain occurs after age 5 or 6.

“Brain structure is adult at approximately age 5.”
Structural MRI of young child from NIH Brain Development Study

Brain Morphometry

• Adult brain structure in school-aged children.
• Stable brain morphological characteristics across childhood, adolescence, and adult years.
• Atrophy of some brain structures in old age.

Age-Related Alterations of
Normalized Cerebral Gray Matter Volume
.8
.7 5
.7
.6 5
.6
.5 5
.5
.4 5
.4
0 20 40 60 80 10 0

Mapping of Cortical Thinning with Longitudinal MRI Data
Gogtay et al., PNAS, 2004

Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and
Brain Growth in Normal Children
(Sowell et al.,J. Neurosci., 2004)
Widespread cortical thinning, and focal areas of cortical thickening observed longitudinally in children over 2 years, from 7 to 9.

Age-Associated Alterations in Volumes of
Subcortical Structures
N.Accumbens
Thalamus
3
2
1
-1
0
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age
Hippocampus
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age

White Matter Growth Associated with Post-natal Proliferation of Oligodendrocytes and Myelin Deposition
-1
-2
-3
0
2
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age

Post-Natal Myelination is Well Visualized on MRI :
Myelinating Fiber Tracts from 3 to 12 Months

• During the first 2-3 decades of life, age-related tissue alterations, presumably related to brain maturation, can be observed with morphometry.
• Though the first evidence came in the form of apparent changes in the morphology of gray matter structures, it was suspected that much of the change was directly, or indirectly, related to continuing myelination and fiber tract development.
• However, until recently, further investigation of fiber tract maturation was limited by the lack of sensitivity to white matter structure with existing MR methods.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging
B
A
• Measures diffusion (motion) of protons in water molecules.
• Magnitude and direction of proton motion within a voxel can be described by a “tensor”.
• Proton diffusion in “free” water (or cerebrospinal fluid) is isotropic, and also tends to be relatively isotropic in gray matter.
• The linear structure of fiber tracts hinders proton diffusion and produces anisotropy .

Diffusion Tensor Imaging

Hypothetical Explanation of
Changes on Diffusion
Imaging During Brain
Development
• During development, increasing myelination and axon calibre,
• result in less extracellular free water,
• which results in lower diffusivity
• and increased fractional anisotropy (FA) in brain fiber tracts.

• Examined closely, the brain exhibits a complex pattern of age-associated tissue alterations well into adulthood.
• There is substantial variability among individuals at all ages.
• The questions:
– What is the source of this variability?
• Genetically-mediated difference in patterning of brain (cortical arealization, strength of connectivity, etc)?
• Genetically-mediated status of maturation?
• Experience-related neuroplastic effects (short term, long term)?
• Interactions between experience and phase of maturation?
– Is this variability functionally meaningful?

Variability in neural architecture is related to behavioral phenotypic differences, especially (but not exclusively) in children.

Microstructural Correlates of Infant Functional
Development: Example of the Visual Pathways
(Dubois et al., J. Neurosci, 2008)
Latency of the P1 component of the
Visual Evoked
Potential correlated with FA in the optic radiations, independent of chronological age, in
5 - 17 week old infants.

“Double Dissociation” in Correlation Patterns
Standardized
Word ID
Standardized
Digit Recall
Left SCR
0.5
0.5
0.25
70 100
R 2 = 0.406
130
0.25
70 100
Bilateral ACR
130
0.5
0.5
0.25
70 100 130
0.25
70
Niogi, S. & McCandliss, B.D.(2006) Neuropsychologia
100 y = 0.0026x + 0.1966
R
2
= 0.4199
130

Study of Behavioral Individual Differences in
Danish Children
• 95 school children, 7-13 years old
• sMRI, DTI, cognitive testing
• Inhibitory function measured with
CANTAB Stop Signal Task (SSRT)
• Spatial working memory measured with
CANTAB self-ordered search task

FA in Right IFG and Right pre-SMA Both Contribute to Prediction of Inhibitory
Function in Children
( Madsen SK, Baare WFC, Hansen MV, Skimminge A, Ejersbo LR, Ramsøy TZ, Gerlach
C, Åkeson P, Paulson OB, Jernigan TL ., 2009 )
• Individual differences in children’s inhibitory function is related to FA differences within the neural circuit previously implicated in SST performance.

Spatial Working Memory Performance Related to FA in Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
(Vestergaard M, Madsen KS, Baare WFC, Skimminge A, Ejersbo
LR, Ramsøy TZ, Gerlach C, Åkeson P, Paulson OB, Jernigan TL. .,
Under Review)

Brain microstructural correlates of visuospatial choice reaction time in children
KS Madsen, WFC Baaré, A Skimminge, M Vestergaard, HR Siebner and TL Jernigan

Behavioral Variability is Related to Neural Variability
( particularly in brain connections)
• Performance on cognitive tasks across multiple domains correlates with fiber tract structural characteristics.
• The associations remain after controlling for age and global parameters.
• It appears that profiles of behavioral attributes are reflected in profiles across brain fiber pathways.

How do we interpret these associations between the neural and the behavioral differences?
• In children, could they arise because of differences (among children of similar age) in the pace of biological development of the brain?
• To what extent do they reflect functional effects of genetically-mediated differences in neural connectivity – or in the pace of development of these neural connections?
• To what extent are they driven by neuroplastic effects of experience, practice, training, and other factors that affect neural activity within brain systems?

Learning to Juggle Produces Transient Change in
Cortical and Tract Morphology
(Draganski et al., Nature, 2004; Scholz et al., 2009)
• Normal volunteers with no juggling skills were scanned at baseline.
• Subjects were taught a simple juggling task to criterion and re-scanned.
• After 3 months (Draganski et al.) or 4 week (Scholz et al.) without practice, jugglers were scanned a third time.
• Focal increases in gray matter were observed in middle temporal and left intraparietal sulcus areas, FA was increased in underlying white matter, and these were apparently diminished after 3 months.

Altering Cortical Connectivity: Remediation-Induced Changes in the White Matter of Poor Readers
Timothy A. Keller and Marcel Adam Just, Neuron, 2009
A: Areas where FA increased in poor readers after remediation.
B: Areas where FA differed between good and poor readers at baseline
• 8-10 year old children show apparent interventionlinked alterations of FA in fiber tracts.

• Twin studies have revealed high heritability of brain morphology.
• We recently reported that 2 attributes of the neural architecture, cortical surface area and cortical thickness are both highly heritable, but exhibit no genetic association.
• Genetic effects on developmental trajectories have not yet been examined.

Pattern of Cortical Arealization Associated with Common
Genetic Variation (in males)
MECP2 SNP rs2239464
(Joyner et al.,PNAS, 2009)

Heritability of Fiber Tract
Structure
(Chiang et al., 2009)
• FA in brain fiber tracts exhibits heritability – i.e., it is more similar between identical
(monozygotic) twins than between fraternal (dizygotic) twins.

• There is evidence that biological development of brain tissues continues throughout childhood and adolescence.
• The biological changes can be linked to individual differences in behavior in developing children.
• There is much left to learn about the meaning of these associations – i.e., about how genetic variation, experience, and other environmental factors interact to influence the developing mental characteristics (and individuality) of a child.