Chapter 1-4

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Knowledge
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Need to know the material of a typical Introduction to Psychology course at the college level.
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Typical college course meets for 15 weeks, 3 times a week for 45 class hours.

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Understanding of the AP Psychology Test
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Knowing the basic elements of the AP Psychology test including:
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Number of questions in the total test
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Number of questions from each individual unit
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Types of questions possible
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How the questions are arraigned?
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How is the test scored?
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Penalty for guessing

Test Taking Strategies
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General Tips for Test Taking
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Know how the test is graded
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Multiple Choice
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100 Points
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Free Response
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50 Points
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150 Total Points

AP Psych Test Part 1
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Know the structure of the test
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Multiple Choice Section - 100 questions
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A-E
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Column format
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Questions taken from every unit on a percentage basis

AP Psychology Exam Structure
Methods, Approaches and History
Research Methods
Biological Bases of Behavior
Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Learning
Cognition
Motivation and Emotion
Developmental Psychology
Personality
Testing and Individual Differences
Abnormal Psychology
Treatment of Psychological Disorders
Social Psychology
6-8%
2-4%
8-10%
7-9%
2-4%
7-9%
8-10%
7-9%
7-9%
6-8%
5-7%
7-9%
5-7%
7-9%

General Tips for Test Taking
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Know the structure of the test
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Free Response Section - 2 questions
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Free Response Question 2009 #1
1. Dimitri and Linda are trying to learn a new routine to compete successfully in a dance competition. Give an example of how each of the following could affect their performance. Definitions without application do not score.
• Extrinsic motivation
• Punishment
• Proactive interference
• Endorphins
• Vestibular system
• Divergent thinking
• Introversion

Free Response Question 2009 #2
2. James is in a driver’s education course preparing to take his driving test. The course includes both book work and driving on the road to prepare students for a written test and a road test.
(a) Describe how each of the following might influence his ability to drive a car during the road test. Definitions without application do not score.
• Cognitive map
• Cerebellum
• Observational learning
• Human factors
(b) Describe how each of the following are related to the results of the written test. Definitions without application do not score.
• Reticular formation
• Predictive validity
• Semantic memory

General Tips for Test Taking
Section I: Multiple Choice
[ _____ - (1/4 X _____ )] X 1.000 = __________
Number Correct Number Wrong Multiple-Choice Score
(If less than zero, enter zero)
Notes: If any questions are thrown out the 1.0 will change to reflect that change.
1999 – two questions 1.0204
2007 – one question 1.0101

General Tips for Test Taking
Section II: Free Response (Assumes two 8 point and 8 point question)
(3.1250 X _______) + (2.500 X ________ ) = _____
Question 1 Question 2 Free Response
(Out of 8) (Out of 10) Score
Note: The numbers will change dependent on how many points each question in a given year is worth.

General Tips for Test Taking
Section III: Composite Score
______________ + ___________ = _______________
Multiple Choice Free Response Composite Score
Score Score
Section IV: Final Score

General Tips for Test Taking
Section I: Multiple Choice
[ _____ - (1/4 X _____ )] X 1.000 = __________
Number Correct
26
6.5
Number Wrong
67.5
Multiple-Choice Score
(If less than zero, enter zero)
Notes: If any questions are thrown out the 1.0 will change to reflect that change.

General Tips for Test Taking
Section III: Composite Score
67.5
______________ + ___________ = _______________
Multiple Choice Free Response Composite Score
Score Score
Section IV: Final Score

General Tips for Test Taking
Section II: Free Response (Assumes two 8 point and 8 point question)
18.75
6
15
6
33.75
(Out of 8) (Out of 10) Score
Note: The numbers will change dependent on how many points each question in a given year is worth.

General Tips for Test Taking
Section III: Composite Score
Multiple Choice
Score
Free Response Composite Score
Score
Section IV: Final Score (20o4 exam)
2
1
4
3
AP Grade
5
Composite Score Range
103 - 150
84 - 102
65 - 83
45 - 64
0 - 44

Chapter 1-4

The scientific study of:
Behavior & Mental processes
Physiology
Bodily functions that cause certain behavior i.e. lack of sleep causes stress and depression
Philosophy
The way we perceive ourselves and our thoughts and the world around us

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 Beliefs
 Rationalism :
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True knowledge comes through reasoning
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We gain knowledge from what we experience
“Cogito, ergo sum” “I think, therefore I am”
 Nativism :
 Heredity provides individuals with inborn knowledge and abilities and we use this to reason
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Dualism
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The mind and the body are two separate entities that work together to form experiences

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 Beliefs
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Tabula rasa
 We are born as a blank slate, everything we know is learned
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This is in direct contrast to the rationalist Descartes

Kickin it old school
William James
1890 US
“ Principles of Psychology”
Wilhelm Wundt
1879 Germany

STRUCTURALISM
: using introspection , the systematic examination by individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences. Emphasized the structure of the mind and behavior.
Edward Titchener: (Cornell University) emphasized the “what” of mental illness rather than “why” or “how” of thinking.
The major opponent to Stucturalism was……
FUNCTIONALISM : gives primary importance to learned habits that enable organisms to adapt to their environment and to function effectively.
“What is the function or purpose of any behavioral act?”
John Dewey: provided impetus for progressive education .
William James: study of consciousness was not limited to elements, contents, and structures. ….the mind haS an ongoing relationship with the environment. He published “Principles of Psychology” 1890

GESTALTISM : The whole is greater than the sum of its’ parts.
BIOLOGICAL : the causes of behavior in the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and endocrine system ………the role of specific brain systems in aggression by stimulating different regions and then recording any destructive actions that are elicited.

BEHAVIORISM : emphasizes observable behavior rather than inner mental experiences……… emphasizes the role of environment as the cause of behavior . (From our environment, we learn to do certain behaviors and learn not to do others.)
Sometimes called learning theory . ……….use of positive reinforcement rather than punishment
B. F. Skinner: radical behaviorism acknowledged that evolution provided each species with a repertory of behaviors.
John B.Watson: observable behavior was important; stated the chief goal of psychology was the prediction and control of behavior .
Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning .

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: An approach which emphasizes that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with bodily events such as the firing of nerve cells in the brain or the release of hormones
COGNITIVE: refers to mental activity including thinking, remembering, learning and using language.
Behavior is only partly determined by preceding environmental events and past behavioral consequences. “People act because they think.”
David Ausubel: attempted to explain meaningful verbal learning as a phenomenon of consciousness rather than of behavior…. Created the
“advance organizer.”
Jean Piaget: identified stages of cognitive development.

PSYCHOANALYSIS : An approach that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. A psychodynamic psychologist will analyze aggression as a reaction to frustrations caused by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust authority. They view aggression as an adult’s displacement of hostility originally felt as a child against his or her parents.
Sigmund Freud: developed from his work with mentally disturbed patients; views a person as being pushed and pulled by complex network of inner and outer forces. Developed stages of life to age 12, claiming that an individual would change little after that point.
Erik Erikson: expanded on Freud’s stages of life to include 8 stages into later adulthood.
Carl Jung: challenged his mentor Freud with the hypothesis that adulthood, not childhood, represents the most significant phase of psychology.

EVOLUTIONARY : Seeks to connect contemporary psychology to a central idea of the life sciences, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Researchers focus on the environmental conditions in which the human brain evolved. Those organisms best suited to their environments will flourish and pass on genes more successfully than those with poorer adaptations.
CULTURAL : Study cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior . Researchers may compare the prevalence of eating disorders for white Americans vs. African American teenagers within the U.S. Cultural psychologists study the perceptions of the world as affected by culture , the languages one speaks and how it affects ones experience of the world, or how does culture affect the way children develop toward adulthood.

HUMANISM : emphasizes personal growth, self-esteem, and the achievement of human potential more than the scientific understanding, prediction, and control of behavior. Human beings are not driven by the powerful, instinctive forces postulated by Freudians or manipulated by environments. ………….look for personal values and social conditions that foster self-limiting, aggressive perspectives instead of growthenhancing, shared experiences.
Abraham Maslow: developed the Hierarchy of Needs, stating that each level of needs must be satisfied before one moves onto the next.

Psychology’s Subfields
 Basic Research
 Biological psychologists explore the links between brain and mind
 Developmental psychologists study changing abilities from womb to tomb
 Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think, and solve problems
 Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits
 Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another

Psychiatry
 A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders
 Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy

Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses
Five Steps of the Scientific Method:
1) Developing a hypothesis
2) Performing a controlled test
3) Gathering objective data
4) Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis (refine hypothesis and retest)
5) Publishing, criticizing and replicating the results

Experimental Method
Components of the Research Process:
1) Developing a research question
2) Surveying the literature
3) Hypothesis
9) Procedure
10) Results/Statistics
4) Independent variable
5) Dependent variable
11) Discussion
6) Extraneous variables
12) New Hypothesis
7) Controls
8) Sampling/Subjects (random assignment to groups)

 Experiments:
 Identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments
 1) Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior
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2) Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
3)Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior
• Clear Cause and Effect relationships can be found
• Experiment is under complete control of experimenter
• Most social behaviors can not be studied with experiments
• Ethical concerns ?

Fig. 1.11 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores.
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Research Strategies--Step 1
Developing a Hypothesis
Empirical Investigation
*collecting objective information firsthand by making careful measurements based on direct experience.
Theory
*an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
*a testable prediction
*often implied by a theory
*MUST be defined operationally

Research Strategies--Step 1
Developing a Hypothesis
Operational Definition
*a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
*REQUIRED to make your suspicion testable
*You MUST describe: independent variables dependent variable list of procedures
*Example-
*intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Independent Variable
*the experimental factor that is manipulated
*the variable whose effect is being studied
Think of the independent variable as a condition that the experimenter changes
INDEPENDENTLY of all the other controlled experimental conditions.

Research Strategies--Step 3 Gathering Objective Data
Dependent Variable
*the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
*in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process, or test.
**the dependent variable must also be given an operational definition.
The responses of the participants in an experiment DEPEND directly on the conditions to which they have been exposed.

If I wanted to prove that smoking causes heart issues, what are some confounding variables?
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The object of an experiment is to prove that A causes B.
A confounding variable is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A.
Lifestyle and family history may also effect the heart.

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Placebo effect
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 Placebo:
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A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)
Placebo Effect:
 Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug
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Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions
These expectancies then influence bodily activities
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Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release endorphins
Also gain some effect through learning

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Another confounding variable.
Not a conscious act.
Double-Blind
Procedure.

 Single Blind Experiment:
 Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
 Double Blind Experiment:
 The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo
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Best type of experiment if properly set up
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Alleviates Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior.
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 Validity
 Ensures that a researcher's experiment design closely follows the principle of cause and effect
 The researcher can eliminate almost all of the potential confounding variables and set up strong controls to isolate other factors.
 Reliability
 refers to the test’s consistency among different administrations.
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If the test is reliable, the scores that each student receives on the first administration should be similar to the scores on the second

Research Strategies--Step 5
Publishing, Criticizing, Replicating the Results
Critics will look for flaws in the research.
REPLICATION is one way to see if one would get the same results.
*repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances
*usually with different subjects in different situations

• It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate.
You can be enormously effective today, dear Gemini, as your inner courage is strong and you feel passionate about most everything you do right now. You might completely revise or renew something now. Draw upon your creative power and use it to make important changes. You might solve a problem revolving around family and the home. However, confusing elements may exist on the job, or with your reputation. Avoid taking things too personally.
 Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself

• The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.
I knew it!!!!!!!!
Fallacy of positive instances
When we remember or notice information that confirms our expectations and forget the discrepancies

Types of Psychological Research:
1) Experimental Method
2) Non-Experimental Methods (Descriptive
Studies)
3) Correlational Studies
*Survey
*Naturalistic Observation
*Longitudinal Study
*Cross-Sectional Study
*Cohort-Sequential Study

Advantages of
Experimental Method
*cause-and-effect
*operationalization of variables
*stresses the control of variables
*can implement doubleblind or blind procedures
*high internal validity
*may be replicated
Disadvantages of
Experimental Method
*reduce external validity
*difficult to establish adequate control conditions
*statistical probability of bias

 Correlation –
 a measure of the relationship between two variables.
 Variable - anything that can change or vary.
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Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r) , which represents two things:
 direction of the relationship.
 strength of the relationship.
Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable.
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clear relationships can be seen
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Menu
correlation does not equal causation

LO 1.10 Correlational technique
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Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00.
Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables.
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No correlation = 0.0.
Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00.
Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction.
 As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction.
 As one increases, the other decreases.
CORRELATION DOES
PROVE CAUSATION!!!

Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)
Low self-esteem could cause or could cause (2)
Depression or
(3)
Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause
Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem and
Depression

Advantages of Correlation
Study
*examine, test, reveal, compare or describe relationship between 2 variables
Disadvantages of
Correlation Study
*cannot establish causeand-effect
*prone to inaccurate reporting
*efficient, collect lots of data *hard to access the impact of additional variables
*make predictions
*do not allow for the
*dispel illusory correlations
*utilize preexisting or archival variables.
data active manipulation of

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Naturalistic observation –
 watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.
Major Advantage:
 Realistic picture of behavior.
Disadvantages:
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Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.
 Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect).
Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.
 Blind observers – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias).
Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold.

 Laboratory observation –
 watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.
 Advantages:
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Control over environment.
Allows use of specialized equipment.
 Disadvantage:
 Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior.
 Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.
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 Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.
 Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.
 Famous case study: Phineas Gage.
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Advantages of Case
Study
*in-depth, detailed information about the case
*opportunity to study unusual cases
*time, money issues
*ethical considerations
Disadvantages of Case
Study
*results cannot be generalized
*prone to inaccurate reporting from source
*cannot be used to establish cause-andeffect relationships
*biased researcher?

*the perception of a relationship where none exists
Adopt
Do not adopt
Conceive confirming evidence disconfirming evidence
Do not conceive disconfirming evidence confirming evidence

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Recording the results from our studies.
Must use a common language so we all know what we are talking about.

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Just describes sets of data.
 You might create a frequency distribution.
 Frequency polygons or histograms.

$25,000-Pam
$25,000- Kevin
$25,000- Angela
$100,000- Andy
$100,000- Dwight
$200,000- Jim
$300,000- Michael
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Mean, Median and Mode.
Watch out for extreme scores or outliers.
Let’s look at the salaries of the employees at Dunder Mifflen Paper in Scranton:
The median salary looks good at
$100,000.
The mean salary also looks good at about $110,000.
But the mode salary is only $25,000.
Maybe not the best place to work.
Then again living in Scranton is kind of cheap.

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Range: distance from highest to lowest scores
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Standard Deviation: the variance of scores around the mean.
Dwight and Kobe may both score 30 ppg (same mean).
But their SDs are very different.
The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distribution is.
Do scientists want a big or small SD?

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In a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are all the same.

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Outliers skew distributions.
If group has one high score, the curve has a positive skew
(contains more low scores)
If a group has a low outlier, the curve has a negative skew
(contains more high scores)

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A unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean.
A positive z score means a number above the mean.
A negative z score means a number below the mean.

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The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was collected.
T-tests, ANOVA or
MANOVA
P-value= .05 for statistical significance.
5% likely the results are due to chance.


 Mastery manager

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 Tomorrow
 30 minutes

 Analyze FRQs
 The good, the bad, the ugly


 a nerve cell
 Dendrite
 the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
 Axon
 the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands
 Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath
 a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons
 enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses

 Action Potential
 a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
 generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane
 Threshold
 the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Cell body end of axon
Direction of neural impulse: toward axon terminals

 Synapse [SIN-aps]
 junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron (synaptic gap)
 Neurotransmitters
 chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
 when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

Serotonin Pathways Dopamine Pathways

 Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen]
 a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction
 Endorphins [en-DOR-fins]
 “morphine within”
 natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters
 linked to pain control and to pleasure

Neurotransmitter molecule
Receiving cell membrane
Receptor site on receiving neuron
EXAMPLES:
Neurotransmitters: dopamine, serotonin
Agonists cocaine (increases dopamine in synapse)
Antagonist (blocks reuptake) curare
SSRI
Agonist mimics neurotransmitter
Antagonist blocks neurotransmitter

PROBLEMS:
1)Serotonin Syndrome
: potentially life-threatening
*two drugs increase the level of serotonin at the same time. (ie) migraine medication (triptans) and antidepressants with SSRI
(selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
*examples: SSRI = Celexa, Zoloft, Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, and Lexapro.
SNRI's include Cymbalta and Effexor
*examples: Triptans = mitrex, Zomig, Frova, Maxalt, Axert, Amerge, and Relpax
Drugs of abuse, such as ecstasy and LSD have also been associated with serotonin syndrome.

HYPOTHALAMUS
( ADH and OXYTOCIN — Secretes
REGULATORY HORMONES)
*Primary link between Endocrine and Nervous systems.
PINEAL GLAND
(MELATONIN)
PITUITARY GLAND
*Secretes seven important hormones which REGULATE
GROWTH
THYROID GLAND ( TYROSINE , CALCITONIN )
THYMUS ( thymosins )
*Two lobes consists--outer CORTEX and a central MEDULLA.
PARATHYROID GLANDS ( PARATHORMONE )
ADRENAL GLANDS (CORTICOSTEROIDS , EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline),
NOREPINEPHRINE (noradrenaline))
*Lie along the superior borders of the kidneys.
PANCREAS (GLUCAGON ., INSULIN)
GONADS ( TESTOSTERONE. ESTROGEN, PROGESTERONE )


 the body’s “slow” chemical communication system
 a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
The Endocrine System is made up of tissues or organs called endocrine glands, which secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream. The chemical messengers are called
HORMONES.

 Central Nervous System (CNS)
 the brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 the sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to the rest of the body
 Nerves
 neural “cables” containing many axons
 part of the PNS
 connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs
 Sensory Neurons
 neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS

 Interneurons
 CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
 Motor Neurons
 carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands
 Somatic Nervous System
 the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

 Autonomic Nervous System
 the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
 Sympathetic Nervous System
 division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body , mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
 division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body , conserving its energy

 Reflex
 a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus
Inputs
Neurons in the brain connect with one another to form networks
The brain learns by modifying certain connections in response to feedback
Outputs
 Neural Networks
 interconnected neural cells
 with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results
 computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

 Lesion
 tissue destruction in the brain
 a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface
 these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

 CT (computed tomography) Scan
 a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body ; also called CAT scan
 PET (positron emission tomography) Scan
 a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging )
 a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

Normal patient Schizophrenic patient

 Brainstem
 the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
 responsible for automatic survival functions
 Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]
 base of the brainstem
 controls heartbeat and breathing

 Reticular Formation
 a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
 Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]
 the brain’s sensory switchboard , located on top of the brainstem
 it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
 Cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um]
 the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem
 it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

 Limbic System
 a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
 associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex
 includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
 Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]
 two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
 Hypothalamus
 neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities ( eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior)

 Cerebral Cortex
 the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
 the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
 Glial Cells
 cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

 Frontal Lobes
 involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
 Parietal Lobes
 includes the sensory cortex
 Occipital Lobes
 include the visual areas , which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
 Temporal Lobes
 include the auditory areas

 Motor Cortex
 area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
 Sensory Cortex
 area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

 More intelligent animals have increased
“uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex

 Aphasia
 impairment of language , usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area
(impairing speaking) or to
Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
 Broca’s Area
 an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
 Wernicke’s Area
 an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

 Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words

 Plasticity
 the brain’s capacity for modification , as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
Corpus callosum  Corpus Callosum
 large band of neural fibers
 connects the two brain hemispheres
 carries messages between the hemispheres



Perception
Spatial-relations
Abstract thought
Intuitive thought
Whole picture
Emotion vs.
vs.
Speaking
Calculations
Speech
Songs
Writing
Logic
Analysis
Details
Content

• Chromosomes
– threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes
All human cells contain the diploid number of chromosomes (46) consisting of 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
Two of this set are X and Y (the sex chromosomes) and the other 22 pairs are autosomes that guide the expression of other traits.
KARYOTYPE of a male: The human haploid genome contains
3,000,000,000 DNA nucleotide pairs, divided among twenty two (22) pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
– has two strands-forming a “double helix”- held together by bonds between pairs of nucleotides
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Four major varieties of nitrogencontaining bases can contribute to nucleotide structure:
• Adenine
• Guanine
• Cytosine
• Thymine

 Genes
 biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
 a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
Genome
*the complete instructions for making an organism consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes
*Represents two sets of genetic instructions--one from the egg and one from the sperm

• Natural Selection
– the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
• Mutations
– random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides
– the source of all genetic diversity

• Identical Twins
– develop from a single zygote (fertilized egg) that splits in two, creating two genetic replicas
Same sex only
Same or opposite sex
• Fraternal Twins
– develop from separate zygotes
– genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share the fetal environment
Identical twins may have separate placentas and blood flow, just like fraternal twins.
a) Splits early, about 5th day b) Splits between 5th and 12th day, greater mortality, greater abnormalities
Two placental arrangements in identical twins

Eggs that split after the 12th day results in conjoined twins.
Parapagus
Thoracopagus
Pygopagus
Parasite
Parapagus

A little known (and very rare) genetic situation results in the
TETRAGAMETIC CHIMERISM
. . . someone who has at least two different genotypes which each arose from an individual zygote and eventually fused, when normally they would have developed separately as twins.

• Temperament
– a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
• Heritability
– the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes
– may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
• Interaction
– the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
• Molecular Genetics
– the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Impoverished environment
Rat brain cell
Enriched environment
Rat brain cell
In 14 to 16 repetitions of this basic experiment, the rats placed in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex.

Culture
– the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Norm
– an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior
Personal Space
– the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
Memes
– self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovation passed from person to person

The Nature and Nurture of Gender
• X Chromosome
– the sex chromosome found in both men and women
– females have two; males have one
– an X chromosome from each parent produces a female
• Y Chromosome
– the sex chromosome found only in men
– when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Testosterone
– the most important of the male sex hormones
– both males and females have it
– additional testosterone in males stimulates
• growth of male sex organs in the fetus
• development of male sex characteristics during puberty
Role
– a set of expectations (norms) about a social position
– defining how those in the position ought to behave

Social Learning Theory
– theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Gender Schema Theory
– theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
Gender Role
– a set of expected behaviors for males and females
Gender Identity
– one’s sense of being male or female
Gender-typing
– the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role



– a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and
social change throughout the life span
• Zygote
– the fertilized egg
– enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division
– develops into an embryo
• Embryo
– the developing human organism from 2 weeks through
2nd month
• Fetus
– the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

• Teratogens
– agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (nuclear fallout, food allergies, medicine taken by mother during pregnancy, alcohol, drugs, et.al.)
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
– physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.
– symptoms include facial misproportions

• Rooting Reflex
– tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek
• Preferences
– human voices and faces
• facelike images-->
– smell and sound of mother
• Babinsky Reflex
– tendency to grasp an object when when placed into their hands and lift them up by their clasped fists
Newborn Reflexes
*rooting reflex
*sucking reflex
*grasping reflex
*swallowing reflex
*startle (moro) reflex
*babinsky reflex

• Habituation
– decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
– newborns become bored with a repeated stimulus, but renew their attention to a slightly different stimulus
• Maturation
– biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
– relatively uninfluenced by experience
– sets the course for development while experience adjusts it
At birth 3 months 15 months
Cortical Neurons

• Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile- and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier,
1989).

• Cognition
– mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
• Schema
– a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Typical Age
Range
Description of Stage
Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor
Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
About 2 to 6 years
About 7 to 11 years
Preoperational
Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
Concrete operational
Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
About 12 through adulthood
Formal operational
Abstract reasoning
Developmental
Phenomena
• Object permanence
• Stranger anxiety
•
Pretend play
• Egocentrism
• Language development
• Conservation
• Mathematical transformations
•
Abstract logic
•
Potential for moral reasoning
Handout 4-4 and 4-11

Infancy and Childhood:
Cognitive Development
 Object Permanence
 the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (Piaget: Sensorimotor)
 Conservation
 the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (Piaget: Concrete Operational)

• Baby Mathematics
– Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992)
• Egocentrism
– the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view (Piaget: Preoperational)
• Theory of Mind
– people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental statesabout their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict (Piaget: Preoperational)
 Autism
 a disorder that appears in childhood
 Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind

Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Born in Russia (Jewish)
Law degree Unive of Moscow
PhD Literature & Linguistics
*humans use various symbols and items that help us to develop cultures
*we change, interact and go through development within our cultures
*higher ﾊ thinking skills depend on the internalization of the items we used to develop within our culture and communicate.
*used blocks to distinguish children's mastery of the concept from simple memorization
**His work was suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for over 20 years after his death.
SocioCultural Theory of Development
FACETS (not stages)
1) Private Speech: talking to oneself
2) Proximal Development: is the level of development immediately above a person's present level to achieve maximum learning
3) Scaffolding: using hints and pointers from teachers, parents, and peers who have already grasped the desired concept, children are able to form their own path toward a solution

Vygotsky v. Piaget
Both Piaget and Vygotsky viewed pre-school children in problem solving situations talking to themselves . When Piaget labeled the self directed behavior as egocentric and believed it only minimum relevant to children ’s cognitive growth,
Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech . He argued that private speech grows out of the children ’s interaction with parents and other adults and through such interactions, they begin to use their parent ’s instructional comments to direct their own behavior.
REF: http://starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/vygotsky.htm

PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU): a metabolic disorder that, left untreated, results in mental retardation and other problems.
**inability of the body to utilize the essential amino acid, phenylalanine.
Amino acids are the building blocks for body proteins. We get amino acids from food. In “classic PKU” the enzyme that breaks down this amino acid is completely deficient causing phenylalanine to accumulate in the blood and body tissues.
**high levels of phenylalanine can cause significant brain problems.
**symptoms include; vomiting, irritability, rash, mousy odor to the urine, nervous problems, increased muscle tone, more active muscle tendon reflexes.
Later, severe brain problems occur, mental retardation and seizures. Other features include: microcephaly (small head), prominent cheek and upper jaw bones with widely spaced teeth, poor development of tooth enamel and decreased body growth.

Resource; http://depts.washington.edu/pku/diet.html

TAYSACH’s DISEASE: deterioration of the brain of a one-year old child due to accumulation of fat on the brain, caused by insufficient activity of an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A that catalyzes the biodegradation of acidic fatty materials known as gangliosides.
*this child will usually die before age 4
*infants with this disease appear to develop normally for first few months of iife.
*symptoms: deterioration of mental & physical abilities, blindness, deafness, inability to swallow, seizures, dementia, increased startle reflex, muscles atrophy and paralysis sets in.
MONOSOMY X (TURNER SYNDROME): the only known viable human monosomy (missing one chromosome)
** 1 in 5000 births
**XO phenotype female; sex organs do not mature at adolescence, and secondary sex characteristics fail to develop
**sterile and short
**no mental deficiency

ANDROGYNY: having both female and male characteristics;
HERMAPHRODITIC
**may be raised as one sex or another as genetalia is ambiguous
**failure to develop breasts, milk-glands, child-bearing hips, no menses, sterility, beard growth, male vocal chords,
TOURETTE’S SYNDROME: neurological disorder which becomes evident in early childhood or adolescence before the age of 18 years.
*multiple motor and vocal tics lasting for more than a year.
*symptoms include: involuntary movements of the face, arms, limbs, or trunk……frequent, repetitive and rapid…..such as eye blink, nose twitch, grimace.
*causal evidence points to abnormal metabolism of at least one brain neurotransmitter, dopamine.

• Stranger Anxiety
– fear of strangers that infants commonly display
– beginning by about 8 months of age
• Attachment
– an emotional tie with another person
– shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Mary Ainsworth
(1979) observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months. Later, she observed 1 year old infants in strange situations without their mothers.
Sensitive-responsive mothers had infants who exhibited SECURE
ATTACHMENT .
Insensitive-unresponsive mothers--those who ignored their children at times-had children who exhibited INSECURE ATTACHMENT .
She is known for her work in the development of ATTACHMENT THEORY .
Placed in a strange situation, 60% of infants display SECURE
ATTACHMENT . They play comfortably and explore their new environment.
Others show INSECURE ATTACHMENT . These infants cling to their mother and are slow to explore their surroundings.


 Monkeys preferred with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother
Harry Harlow
1905 - 1981

• Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.

Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
From his initial analysis of imprinting, Lorenz went on to identify the essential components of innate behavior and developed the central constructs of releasers and fixed action patterns which serve as the foundation of the study of animal behavior.
Critical Period
– an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Imprinting
– the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
Temperament
– a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)
– a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
– said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Self-Concept
– a sense of one’s identity and personal worth

Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices
Studies by Stanley Coopersmith (1967), Diana Baumrind
(1996) and John Buri (1988) reveal that children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence usually have warm, concerned, AUTHORITATIVE parents.
Although most studies are done with white middle-class families, studies in other cultures with other races in more than 200 cultures worldwide confirm these findings.
Authoritarian
– parents impose rules and expect
– obedience
“Don’t interrupt”
– “Why? Because I said so.”
Authoritative
– parents are both demanding and responsive
– set rules, but explain reasons
– encourage discussion
Permissive
 submit to children’s desires
 make few demands
 use little punishment
Rejecting-neglecting
 disengaged
 expect little
 invest little

Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices
Authoritarian
ADVANTAGE: little time
DISADVANTAGE: frail obedient children who may feel hopeless; children may become rebellious and grow to have an insecure outlook on life.
Authoritative
ADVANTAGE: children who talk and discuss, incorporate understanding; children grow to be confident and trusting of the world.
DISADVANTAGE: takes time to explain and discuss
(1) Parent’s behavior may be influencing child.
• Three explanations
Authoritative parents for correlation
Self-reliant,
Socially competent between child authoritative
Authoritative parents
(
3) Some third factor may be influencing both parents and child.
(2)
Child’s behavior may be influencing parents.
Self-reliant,
Socially competent child parenting and High education, social ample competence Authoritative parents income, harmonious marriage, common
Self-reliant, genes
Socially competent child

• Adolescence
– the transition period from childhood to adulthood
– extending from puberty to independence
• Puberty
– the period of sexual maturation
– when one first becomes capable of reproduction
• Primary Sex Characteristics
– body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
• ovaries- female
• testes- male
• external genitalia
• Secondary Sex Characteristics
– nonreproductive sexual characteristics
• female- enlarged breasts, hips
• male- voice quality, body hair
• Menarche (meh-NAR-key)
– first menstrual period

The Heinz Dilemma
In a county in Europe, a poor man named Valjean could find no work, nor could his sister and brother. Without money, he stole food and medicine that they needed.
He was captured and sentenced to prison for 6 years. After a couple of years, he escaped from the prison and went to live in another part of the country under a new name. He saved money and slowly built up a factory. He gave his workers the highest wages and used most of his profits to build a hospital for people who couldn’t afford good medical care. Twenty years had passed when a tailor recognized the factory owner as being Valjean, the escaped convict whom the police had been looking for back in his hometown.
Should the tailor report Valjean to the police?
Why or why not?

As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world.
Postconventional level
Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles
5. “Although turning Valjean in may not be perfectly just, leaving such decisions up to each person’s judgment would result in greater injustice” (Affirms agreed-upon rights)
4. “There has to be respect for the law”
(duty to society/avoids dishonor or guilt)
Conventional level
Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoid disapproval
3. “If you don’t report him, everyone will think you are just as much a criminal” (gains approval/avoids disapproval)
Preconventional level
Morality of selfinterest: to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
2. “The tailor may get a reward for turning in a criminal.” (gains/rewards)
1. “The tailor will be in trouble if he doesn’t tell the police.” (avoid punishment)

NOTE: the authors gave no Stage 6 response. This is partly because none of the answers reflected Stage 6 responses. Kohlberg and Colby conclude that,
“the question of whether Stage 6 should be included as a natural psychological stage will remain unresolved until research is conducted with a special sample of people likely to have developed beyond Stage 6.”
Lawrence
Kohlberg 1927-
1987 Harvard
University

Erik Erikson
Freudian ego-psychologist
1902-1994
Approximate age Stage Description of Task
Infancy
(1st year)
Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and
(2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary Competence vs.
(6 yearsinferiority puberty)
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.

Approximate age Stage Description of Task
Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by
(teens into confusion
20’s) testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.
Young Adult Intimacy vs.
Young adults struggle to form close relation-
(20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate
40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-
(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Late Adult Integrity vs.
When reflecting on his or her life, the older
(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure.

In each stage, conflict arises between newly emerging personality needs and social demands and culminates in a crisis, not in the sense of a catastrophe but rather represents a turning point in development.
Erikson noted, however, that all the personality components develop to some extent throughout life, even before their critical stages.
To some extent, they may develop in parallel and are interdependent even before the relevant crises are resolved.

• Identity
– one’s sense of self
– the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
• Intimacy
– the ability to form close, loving relationships
– a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

• Menopause
– the time of natural cessation of menstruation
– also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
• Alzheimer’s Disease
– a progressive and irreversible brain disorder
– characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning

Reasoning ability score
60
55
Cross-sectional method suggests decline
50
45
Longitudinal method suggests more stability
40
35
25 32 39 46 53 60
Age in years
67
Cross-sectional method
74 81
Longitudinal method
• Cross-Sectional
Study
– a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
• Longitudinal Study
– a study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Intelligence
(IQ) score
105
Verbal scores are stable with age
100
95
90
85
Nonverbal scores decline with age
80
75
20 25 35 45 55 65 70
Verbal scores
Nonverbal scores
Age group
• Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline
(adapted from
Kaufman & others, 1989).

– one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
– tends to increase with age
– ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly
– tends to decrease during late adulthood

Many people have tried to explain what grief is; some have even identified certain stages of grief.
P robably the most well-known of these might be from
Elizabeth
Kubler-Ross ' book, " On
Death and Dying ."
T he stages Kubler-Ross identified are:
• Denial (this isn't happening to me!)
• Anger (why is this happening to me ?)
• Bargaining (I promise I'll be a better person if ...)
• Depression (I don't care anymore)
• Acceptance ( I'm ready for whatever comes)
M any people believe that these stages of grief are also experienced by people who have lost a loved one.