JOHN CALVIN
Gonzalez, Vol. 2, Chapter 7
CONTRAST BETWEEN
TWO REFORMERS
Martin Luther & John Calvin
Contrast between two Reformers
Martin Luther
John Calvin
• “Trailblazer” of the
• Second generation of the
Reformation
• Tortured quest for
salvation; joyous
discovery of justification
by faith
• Luther’s experience would
always dominate his
theology and approach to
reform
Reformation
• Careful thinker who bound
Protestant ideas into a
cohesive whole
• Did not let justification
eclipse the rest of
Christian theology
• Developed areas that
Luther had neglected (e.g.
Sanctification)
Calvin’s Resume
• Born July 10, 1509 in Noyon, France
• Calvin’s father was part of the rising middle class; secretary to
•
•
•
•
the bishop and procurator of the cathedral chapter
Calvin’s father had procured the incomes of two minor
ecclesiastical posts for his son, to defray his expenses as a
student
Pursued an ecclesiastical career, Calvin studied in Paris where
he became acquainted with both humanism and the
conservative reaction to it
He also became familiar wit the doctrines of Wycliffe, Huss and
Luther
Nevertheless he insisted that while in Paris he remained
“stubbornly tied to the superstitions of the papacy”
Calvin’s Resume
• Awarded Master of Arts in 1528
• His father had since lost his influence in Noyon and
decided that John should pursue a career in law
• Calvin went on to study in Orleans and Bourges under
two of the most famous jurists, Pierre de l’Estoile
(traditionalist) and Andrea Alciati (humanist); Calvin
favored l’Estoile
• How Calvin came to his break with Rome is not known; he
left no record and wrote little about the inner state of his
soul
Probable influences
• Humanist circles that he was a part of
• His study of Scripture and the early fathers of the church
• The writings of Luther? Zwingli? Others?
Calvin’s break with Rome
• In 1534, Calvin returned to Noyon and gave up the livings
of the ecclesiastical posts that his father had secured for
him
• In October 1534, Francis I of France shifted his policy
towards Protestantism
• As a result of this change in royal policy, in January 1535
Calvin was compelled to go into exile in Switzerland, in
the Protestant city of Basel
• Calvin had hoped to find a relatively peaceful and quiet
setting to study Scripture and to write theological treatises
to help clarify the faith of the church in confusing times
Institutes of the Christian Religion
• First edition appeared in Basel in 1536 (516 pages)
• Intended to be a short summary of the Christian faith from
a Protestant viewpoint
• Most Protestant writings of the period were polemical and
reactionary in nature, in keeping with the urgency of the
times
• Calvin wrote on basic doctrines such as the Trinity and
the incarnation
• First edition was “pocket-sized,” containing six chapters:
four dealing with the Law, the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer
and the Sacraments; the last two were more polemical in
tone, distinguishing Protestantism from Romanism
Success of the Institutes
• Instant “best-seller”; sold-out in nine months
• First edition was in Latin, so could be read throughout
Europe
• Successive editions of the Institutes grew in volume and
addressed various controversies of the time, opinions of
various groups the Calvin believed were in error, and the
practical needs of the church
• 1539 edition was published in Strasbourg; 1541 edition
was the first French edition; 1543, 1545, 1550, 1551,
1559, 1560 (the last two being the definitive texts)
Definitive Edition (1559-60)
• Four books with a total of eighty chapters
• Book One: God and Revelation
• Book Two: God as Redeemer (OT & Christ)
• Book Three: Sanctification (Life in the Spirit; Fruits of the Spirit)
• Book Four: Church & Sacraments
REFORMER OF
GENEVA
Calvin the Reluctant Reformer
• Calvin had no intention of following the active lifestyle of
many Protestants who had become leaders of
Reformation throughout Europe
• Believed that his gifts were more suited to scholarship;
not being a pastor or leader
• Decided to relocate to Strasbourg where the environment
seems conducive to theological reflection and literary
activity
• The direct route to Strasbourg was closed off by military
operations; he had to make a detour through Geneva
“Protestant” Geneva
• Geneva had come under the influence of missionaries
from the Protestant city of Bern
• The initial Protestant converts were a small group of
educated laity who ardently desired the reform of the
church
• However, a powerful sector of bourgeoisie were only
interested in the economic and political benefits that
would result from a break with Rome; not really
interested in “inward Protestantism”
• The local clergy simply acquiesced to the orders of the
city government to abolish the Mass in 1536
WILLIAM FAREL (14891565)
Calvin’s detour
• The Bern missionaries, led by William Farel, suddenly
•
•
•
•
found themselves responsible for the religious life of the
city; sorely lacking in personnel to do it
Calvin arrived in 1536 planning to spend no more than a
day in the city
Upon hearing that the young author of the Institutes was
in town, Farel sought him out to compel him to stay
He presented Calvin with several reasons why his
presence was needed in Geneva
Calvin initially refused, but changed his mind when Feral
declared that the judgment of God would fall upon him if
he did not agree to remain in Geneva
William Farel to John Calvin
“May God condemn your repose, and
the calm you seek for study, if before
such a great need you withdraw, and
refuse your succor and help.”
First attempt at Reformation
• Initially, Calvin had agreed only to lend his aid to the
•
•
•
•
•
Protestant leaders of the city
However, Calvin soon became Farel’s main collaborator
The reforming zeal of Calvin and Farel was not well
received by the bourgeoisie, who began to circulate
rumors of their errors in the other Protestant cities of
Switzerland and southern Germany
The conflict came to a head on the matter of the right to
excommunicate unrepentant sinners
The government of Geneva refused to allow this, claiming
that it was an unwarranted rigorism
Calvin was banned from the city; Farel allowed to remain,
but preferred to join Calvin in exile
Calvin in Strasbourg
• Finally making it to Strasbourg (1538), Calvin thought to
•
•
•
•
•
resume his plans for quiet scholarship
However, a large community of French exiles insisted that
Calvin become their pastor; at the insistence of Martin
Bucer, Calvin agreed
He became a prolific liturgist – producing a French liturgy,
French metrical translations of several psalms
He also produced the second edition of the Institutes
The three years he spent in Strasbourg were probably the
happiest of his career (1538-1541)
However, he always regretted not being able to finish the
work in Geneva
Marriage to Idelette de Bure (1540)
Calvin returns to Geneva
• In 1540, Calvin had won the admiration of Geneva in a
•
•
•
•
propaganda war that he had waged against Bishop Jacopo
Sadoleto on behalf of the Protestant cause in Geneva
In 1541, the new government invited Calvin to return to Geneva
Calvin went right to work on a series of Ecclesiastical
Ordinances that the city government approved with some
modifications
The reforms placed the church in Geneva under the authority
of a “Consistory” of pastors and lay elders
Despite the plurality of elders/pastors, Calvin’s personal
authority was such that the Consistory usually followed his
advice
Clashes of authority
• The Consistory and the City Government were frequently
at odds with each other
• Calvin sought to regulate the customs and behavior of the
citizens of the city, who also happened to be members of
the church
• The government was not always amenable to the rigor
that Calvin and the Consistory imposed upon their citizens
• When the opposition party came in power again in 1553,
Calvin’s political position was precarious
MICHAEL SERVETUS
(1511-1553)
The “Servetus matter” (1553)
• Servetus was a famous Spanish physician who had made
•
•
•
•
significant contributions to medical science
He was also the author of a number of theological treatises,
where he rejected (in Anabaptist fashion) the union of church
and state, infant baptism, and (in Socinian fashion) the doctrine
of the Trinity
He had escaped imprisonment and trial for heresy in France,
and was making his way through Geneva when he was
recognized
Upon his arrest, Calvin had drawn up thirty-eight accusations
against him; the other Protestant cantons supported Calvin
over against Calvin’s more lenient opponents in government
The city of Geneva had no choice but to condemn him to
burning; Calvin had argued for the less severe punishment of
beheading
The Aftermath of Servetus’ Martyrdom
• Servetus’ execution secured Calvin’s authority in Geneva
for the rest of his life
• The theologians of all the other Protestant cantons had
supported Calvin; leaving Calvin’s opponents on the
Genevan government open to the charge of defending a
heretic who had been condemned by both Catholics and
Protestants
• In 1559, Calvin saw the fulfillment of one of his fondest
dreams – the opening of the Geneva Academy under the
direction of Theodore Beza
• Calvin died on May 27, 1564
THE GENEVA ACADEMY
Theodore Beza (1519-1605)
CALVIN AND CALVINISM
Emerging consensus
• During Calvin’s lifetime the main issue dividing
Protestants was the manner in which Christ was present
in the Supper
• The issue famously divided Luther and Zwingli at the
Marburg Colloquy (1529)
• Calvin’s own view was closer to Martin Bucer of
Strasbourg, who took an intermediate position between
Luther and Zwingli
• Calvin’s view: “Virtualism” (true spiritual presence, not
physical)
Consensus Denied
• Wittenberg Concord of 1526 - made room for both
•
•
•
•
•
•
Luther’s and Bucer’s views of the supper
Zurich Consensus of 1549
Later in life, Luther had expressed his pleasure with
Calvin’s Institutes
Then in 1552, Joachim Westphal published a treatise that
declared Calvinist views on the Supper in error
Melanchthon refused to condemn Calvin after Luther died
Growing distance between those who followed Luther’s
views and those who accepted the Zurich Consensus
“Reformed” and “Lutheran”
The Geneva Academy
• Not only through the Institutes, but also through the
Geneva Academy, Calvin’s influence was felt throughout
Europe
• Many exiles came to Geneva, and many more came
voluntarily to learn
• Eventually “Calvinism” spread to the Netherlands,
Scotland, Hungary, France and beyond
• Predestination would not become the “hallmark” of
Calvinism until the 17th century
THE REFORMED
TRADITION
THE REFORMATION IN
GREAT BRITAIN
Great Britain in the Sixteenth Century
House of Tudor (England)
House of Stuart (Scotland)
HENRY VII (1457-1509)
Henry VII (Tudor)
• Defeated Richard III (York) at Bosworth Field in 1485,
•
•
•
•
•
ending the Wars of the Roses
Married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting Lancaster and York
Children: Arthur, Margaret, Henry, Mary
In order to strengthen ties with Spain, Henry secured the
marriage of Catherine of Aragon, one of the daughters of
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, to his son and heir,
Arthur
Arthur died 4 months after the marriage
Arranged a special dispensation from Rome to allow
Henry to marry Catherine; this cast doubt on the
legitimacy of Henry’s marriage
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
• First wife – Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536)
• Daughter of Isabella & Ferdinand of Spain
Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536)
The King’s “Great Matter”
• Henry & Catherine’s only surviving child was Mary (1516•
•
•
•
1558)
Henry believed his marriage was cursed because it was
against canon law of the church
The kingdom had just recently gone through a series of
bloody wars of succession; Henry needed a male heir
Proposed that his illegitimate son, Henry “FitzRoy,” be
declared legitimate and made his heir; the pope would not
agree
Henry’s solution was to try to seek to have his marriage to
Catherine annulled; he begins his campaign in 1525
Charles I (V) of Spain
• Nephew to Catherine of Aragon
The Politics of Papal Annulments
• Papal annulments were not uncommon, so Henry’s
request was neither unusual or unreasonable (in 16th
century terms
• However, the pope, Clement VII, was practically under the
thumb of Charles V
• Clement stalled as long as he could, and even had his
representatives suggest that Henry marry another in
secret
• Meanwhile, Thomas Cranmer, had advised Henry to
secure the opinions of the major universities of Europe:
Paris, Toulouse, Orleans, Oxford, Cambridge, and even
the ones in Italy – all declared in favor of Henry
Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556)
Henry’s course of action
• From this point on Henry’s policies were designed to force
the pope into concession
• Ancient laws forbidding appeals to Rome were reenacted;
threatening to stop revenues going to Rome; the clergy
were forced to swear allegiance to the King as “Head of
the Church in England, as far as the law of Christ will
allow”
• Henry was able to secure the pope’s confirmation of the
appointment of Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of
Canterbury, the leading bishop of the English Church
• Soon after, Henry found himself falling in love with Ann
Boleyn, the sister of one of his mistresses
Ann Boleyn (1506-1536)
• Queen (from 1533); beheaded (1536)
The Inevitable Reformation
• Henry was in no way sympathetic to Protestantism; what
he sought was the restoration of the rights of the crown
against undue papal intervention and encroachment
• Lutheranism was gaining a following in England, and the
ideas of Wycliffe were still around
• Before he became Archbishop, Thomas Cranmer himself
had spent time in Germany as an imperial ambassador,
and saw the Lutheran Reformation firsthand in
Nuremburg; secretly married the niece of Andreas
Osiander
• Cranmer held out hope that the Church of England could
follow a similar course of reform
Henry’s “eventful year” (1533-34)
• Henry secretly marries Anne Boleyn. (She
happens to be pregnant at the time.)
• Parliament forbids all appeals to Rome in
temporal cases.
• Both Convocations (Canterbury and York) declare
marriage to a brother’s widow unlawful.
• Archbishop Cranmer annuls Henry’s marriage to
Catherine. (1533)
The “eventful year” continued…
(1533-34)
• Anne’s coronation (June 1533). Anne gives birth
to Elizabeth on September 7.
• The Pope excommunicates Henry.
• Succession Act (1534) imposes a national oath
recognizing Henry’s marriage to Anne and her
children as rightful heirs.
• Supremacy Act (1534) declares Henry “Supreme
Head of the English Church.”
• Treasons Act (1534) forbids denial of the King’s
Supremacy.
Thomas More & John Fisher
• Executed for Treason under Henry VIII
• Martyrs of the Catholic Church
Henry’s Religious Policies
• Henry was conservative on religious matters, but
understood that many of his leading churchman, including
Cranmer, were committed to reform
• Henry’s policies thus shifted from time to time due to
changing political considerations
Henry’s continuing need for an heir
• Anne produced no male heir; her only child was a
•
•
•
•
daughter, Elizabeth (I)
Eventually Anne would be accused of adultery and
condemned to death; the charges were most certainly
false
Henry then married Jane Seymour, who would finally
produce a male heir, Edward (VI)
Jane died soon after childbirth, leaving Henry a widow
Henry would go through three more wives
Anne of Cleves
Married 1540, Annulled 540
Catherine Howard
Married 1540, Executed 1542
Catherine Parr
Married 1543, Widowed 1547
Mary Tudor (1516-1558)
• Daughter of Catherine of Aragon
• Queen (1553-1558)
Elizabeth Tudor (1533-1603)
• Daughter of Anne Boleyn
• Queen (1558-1603)
Edward Tudor (1537-1553)
• Son of Jane Seymour
• King (1547-1553)
Archbishop Cranmer behind the scenes…
• Secured the translation of the Bible into English
• Suppression of the monasteries
• Favored status for humanists in the universities
• Gradually, the Reformation would take root in England
EDWARD VI (R. 15471553)
Reform under Edward
• Protectorate of Somerset (Edward’s uncle); later
Northumberland
• Reformation-minded bishops appointed; catholic bishops
deposed
• The “cup” restored to the laity, clerical marriage allowed,
images removed from the church
• Steps towards liturgical reform ultimately resulted in the
publication of the Book of Common Prayer
• 1549 – conservative (“Lutheran-like”)
• 1552 – reformed (“Zwinglian-like”)
MARY I (R. 1553-1558)
Mary’s Reign
• Edward’s premature death brought a crisis to the cause of
•
•
•
•
reform
Edward’s council attempted to secure the throne for
Edward’s cousin, Lady Jane Grey; forces loyal to Mary
quickly secured the throne
Mary was committed to the goal of restoring Roman
Catholicism in England
Married her cousin, Philip of Spain (later Philip II)
Mary’s policies were repressive of Protestantism, and her
reign produced over 300 martyrs of the Protestant cause
Martyrdom of Latimer & Ridley
• October 16, 1555
Martyrdom of Cranmer (1556)
• March 1556
ELIZABETH I (R. 15581603)
Reform during Elizabeth’s reign
• Never really any doubt that Elizabeth would seek to
•
•
•
•
•
restore the royal supremacy over the church
Marian exiles from the continent were returning, many of
them with Calvinistic ideas (eventually forming the Puritan
party)
Elizabeth was not a Protestant extremist; her ideal church
would unite the people under a common form of worship,
though allowing great latitude for varying opinions
Produced the third Book of Common Prayer (1559)
Declared “Supreme Governor of the Church of England”
Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (1562)
Elizabeth’s via Media
• Maintain episcopal polity in the Church of England
•
•
•
•
(bishops)
Conservative temperament towards reform (retaining
many traditional vestments and ornaments)
Liturgy that was comprehensive of varying opinions on the
nature of Christ’s presence in the Supper
At first, Catholics were tolerated; after her
excommunication in 1570, Catholics were persecuted
Catholics attempted many plots against Elizabeth;
supported Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-1587)
Spanish Armada (1588)
• Battle of Gravelines
REFORMATION OF
SCOTLAND
Scottish Politics
• Traditional ally: France
• The marriage of Margaret Tudor to James IV brought
hope that England and Scotland could live in peace
• The marriage of James V to Mary of Guise brought
Scotland under the influence of France again
• Protestant ideas had found fertile ground in Scotland as
the teachings of the Lollards and Hussites had in earlier
times
• Protestant ideas also found favor with many of the nobles
who grew weary with the growing power of the crown
Scottish Politics
• Henry VIII had suggested the marriage of the young Mary
Stuart (Queen of Scots) to his son, Edward; but the
French secured the marriage of Mary to the French
Dauphin, Francis
• During Mary’s time in France, the Protestant factions grew
stronger in Scotland, eventually taking St. Andrew’s castle
and making it their home base
JOHN KNOX (1514-1572)
Knox’s resume
• Educated at the University of Glasgow or St. Andrews
• Ordained a catholic priest in 1536
• Came under the influence of George Wishart, and joined the
•
•
•
•
•
effort to reform the Scottish Church
Implicated in the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546;
imprisoned by French forces, later exiled to England
Licensed in the Church of England during Edward’s reign,
eventually becoming a royal chaplain
Went to Frankfort and Geneva during the reign of Mary
Was not allowed to return to England when Elizabeth ascended
to the throne
Authored The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous
Regiment of Women
Politics in Scotland
• Knox returned to Scotland when the Protestant nobility (“The Lord’s of
•
•
•
•
•
the Congregation”) were at their most vulnerable against the French
forces under the regent, Mary of Guise
Upon the regent’s death, the nobility invited Mary, Queen of Scots,
back to Scotland, but under the provision that she would not suppress
the Protestant cause
Knox found himself at odds with Mary, preaching against her
insistence on having the mass celebrated in her private chapel (the
“new Jezebel”)
Knox and his supporters established the Reformed Church of
Scotland along presbyterian lines; drawing up a Confession of Faith
and a Scottish liturgy
The misfortunes of Mary’s marriages, the intrigues of her court, and
Mary’s own dream of sitting on the throne of England would
eventually lead to her own downfall
Mary would eventually be forced to abdicate in favor of her one year
old son, James (VI)
1558: First Marriage to Dauphin Francis II
of France (2 years)
1565: Second marriage to her cousin,
Henry Darnley (1545-67)
1567: Third marriage to James Hepburn, 4th
Earl of Bothwell (1536-78)
Mary and her son James (future James VI & I of
Scotland and England)
1586: BABINGTON PLOT
IMPLICATES MARY IN A PLAN TO
ASSASSINATE ELIZABETH.