CASARA NATIONAL
NAVIGATOR COURSE
Search and Rescue Procedures
Casara
CASARA Navigator Course
Table of Contents:
SEARCH and RESCUE PROCEDURES
 The Search Plan
 Area Coverage
 Search patterns – Visual
 Search patterns – Electronic
 Reports and Returns
Casara
The Search Plan
Casara

Once an Aircraft or vessel has been reported missing,
the search planning process begins.

To give you an idea of where your search tasking
originates, we will review the factors the Searchmaster
must consider in his/her search planning.
The Search Plan

Casara
When the Searchmaster draws up a SEARCH PLAN
he/she considers the following;
 Estimate the datum;
 Determine the size of the search area;
 Select the appropriate search patterns;
 Determine the desired area coverage; and,
 Develop an optimum and attainable search plan
Developing the Search Plan
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Estimate the DATUM;
 Determine the position of the emergency
 For marine cases, calculate the effect of tide and
current on the survivors.
Developing the Search Plan

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Determine the size of the search area;
 Allow for errors in position estimates,;
 Allow for navigation errors of the search units; and,
 Drift variables of wind and tide.
Developing the Search Plan

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Select the appropriate search plan;
 Consider the size of the area;
 The type of terrain; and,
 The capabilities of the search units.
Developing the Search Plan

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Determine the desired area coverage;
 Factors affecting probability of detection;
 Tree coverage, snow, water conditions
 Track spacing;
 Visibility from the search unit
 Visibility and size of the object.
 The smaller the Track Spacing, the more units
required
 The number of sweeps.
 A factor of the # of units, weather, daylight, etc
Developing the Search Plan

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Develop an optimum and attainable search plan
 Consider the number of search units available and
other factors and circumstances.
Search Planning Methods

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Based on least and greatest values of all unknown or
uncertain factors:
– Such as earliest and latest time of the incident,
winds, tides, navigation errors, etc..

Plots minimum vectors and maximum vectors that
the search object may have drifted.

The search area then incorporates the whole of this
area.
Search Planning Methods

The two systems that will most likely be used to task a
CASARA resource for aviation incidents over land are:

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
The Canadian Search Area Definition Method
(CSAD) or

The Mountain VFR (MVFR) Method
Search Planning Methods

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The Mountain Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Method
acknowledges that:
Crashes are likely to occur along the whole of the
intended track.

Very few occur before the Last Known Position (LKP).

Sites cluster close to the intended track.
Search Planning Methods
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
Probability of Containment (POC) area stretches along
the entire length of the track.

If the intended route is not known with any certainty, all
likely routes must be covered.
– From 5 miles before LKP to 5 miles beyond the
intended destination,
Mountain Visual Flight Rules
(VFR) Method

AREA A
– Entire length of the intended track, 5 miles on either
side,
– The same coverage on any alternate routes than
may have been used.
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Mountain Visual Flight Rules
(VFR) Method

AREA B
– Entire length of the intended track, 10 miles on
either side,
– From 10 miles before LKP to 10 miles beyond the
intended destination,.
– The same coverage on any alternate routes than
may have been used.
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Mountain Visual Flight Rules
(VFR) Method
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Mountain Visual Flight Rules
(VFR) Method (alt routes)
Alternate
Routes
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Canadian Search Area Definition
(CSAD) Method
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
Two probability areas are computed as follows:

AREA 1- a rectangle 10 nautical miles (NM) each side
of the track, beginning 10 NM before LKP and
extending 10 NM beyond the destination.

AREA 2- a rectangle 15 NM each side of the track,
beginning at LKP and extending 15 NM beyond
destination. Area 2 includes the overlapping portion of
Area 1.
Canadian Search Area Definition
10
0
-10
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20
Search Plan
Once the Search Plan has been established and
resources assigned, the Searchmaster must decide
on the search sequence and search patterns to be
used throughout the search process.
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Search Plan-Sequence

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PHASE I
For searches where the CSAD or MVFR method is
used.

PHASE I is a preliminary electronic and visual search
effort performed before all the necessary assets arrive
in the search area.

The intent is to provide a platform to spot a visual or
electronic signal from the survivor or short term
evidence of the crash site.

Carry out track crawls of the missing aircraft’s intended
route checking the LKP and destination for take-off and
landing incidents.
Search Plan-Sequence
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
PHASE I cont’d

Carry out an electronic search to detect any distress
beacon signals.

Carry out a cooperative target/survivor search over the
high probability area . Covering 15 miles either side of
tract(s), including 15 miles before LKP and beyond
Destination (use10 miles for MVFR).
Search Plan-Sequence
PHASE II (for all CSAD track lengths)
 Search AREA ONE in the following sequence:
 The last quarter of track from the intended track outwards.

The third quarter of the intended track.

The first quarter of the intended track.

The second quarter.

The overfly area commencing at Destination.

The underfly area commencing at LKP.
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CSAD Search Sequence
4th
3rd
6th
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2nd
1st
5th
Search Patterns-Plan
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PHASE II (for all MVFR track lengths)
Search AREA ONE in the following sequence:
The third quarter of track from the intended track
outwards.

The last quarter of the intended track.

The second quarter of the intended track.

The third quarter.

The overfly area commencing at Destination.

The underfly area commencing at LKP.
MVFR Search Sequence
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Search Plan-Sequence
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PHASE III
Expand the search to AREA TWO and use the same
sequence as in Phase II for the appropriate type of
search area.
For MVFR, any valleys, dead-end canyons, passes
than may have been accidentally taken by the missing
aircraft should also be covered.
Search Patterns-General
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Once the search area has been defined and the search
sequence established, the search assets are given
their specific taskings.
They will be assigned a specific portion of the search
area using one of three possible methods
GEOREF,
The Track Line Method, or
The Corner method by giving the Latitude and
Longitude positions of each corner.
Search Patterns-General

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GEOREF has been discussed earlier and the Corner
Method is self evident but the Track Line method requires
clarification.
Once the likely track of the aircraft has been determined
and AREAs ONE and TWO or AREAs “A” and “B” (MVFR),
the track is divided into 10 mile segments starting at the
LKP ( the track line before the LKP is a MINUS value -15, 10 etc).
Search Patterns-General

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A specific portion of the search area will be assigned by
giving:
The AREA (ONE and/or TWO), “A” and/or”B” for MVFR.
Whether the AREA to be covered is North or South
(East or West) of the track Line
“miles along the track line”..
Example;
– Search AREA ONE and TWO NORTH from 10 miles
to 20 miles.
Canadian Search Area Definition
Assigned Area
10
0
-10
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20
Search Patterns
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As part of your tasking you will also be told the type
of search assigned and the search parameters.
Different search patterns are used for different
purposes but you will be assigned one of the
following:
Electronic Search
Track Crawl;
Creeping-Line-Ahead (CLA);
Parallel Track;
Expanding Square;
Sector Searches;
Contour Search, or;
Coast Crawl.
Electronic Search
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
ELTS can be heard by satellites some 25,000 miles
overhead but at our searching level there are some
limitations.

Because of the limited life of most ELTs it is essential
to saturate the high probability areas as soon as
possible.

Assuming a heavily treed area and level terrain, we
should only expect to receive an ELT at
approximately 3 nm if we flew at 1000 feet AGL. At
5000 feet the range would be approximately 15 nm.
Essentially, the higher you fly the better the range.
Electronic Search
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
Any Normal visual search pattern which allows you to
cover a great deal of area in a short time is fine for an
electronic search but the flying altitude is normally not
appropriate for visual searching.

Normal cruising airspeed will not reduce the
effectiveness of an electronic search and will improve
the rate at which you cover the area.

False “On Top” indications should be confirmed with
a second “On Top” from a different direction.
Electronic Search
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
The most effective searches are Parallel Track or a
creeping Line.

Search Width and Track spacing should anticipate
nominal beacon reception for the altitude, area and
terrain.

Prior to take-off, the effectiveness of the electronic
homer should be confirmed using a hand held radio
on an appropriate frequency.
ELT Homer Operation
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
The following hints are not meant to replace reading
the pamphlets on the homer, watching the training
video and flying training flights.

Once the search aircraft is airborne, the homer may
be operated by the navigator or one of the spotters .

It is important for the operator to be able to hear any
signal on the homer and still be in instant
communication with the pilot. Some zones use a
small homer earphone under the aircraft headset.
ELT Homer Operation
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
When you are searching for a signal. The homer
should be set to “receive” with the VOLUME and
SENSITIVITY towards the “Maximum” range.

Once a signal is received. The Homer is selected to
“Direction Finding” and the VOLUME and
SENSITIVITY reduced to keep the “needle” from
deflecting to maximum (see diagram).

Banking of the aircraft will cause the needle to swing
so bearings should be taken with the aircraft level
and steady.
ELT Homer
METER
MODE
FREQUENCY
SENSITIVITY
VOLUMN
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ELT Homer Operation
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
Changing VOLUME and SENSITIVITY will also affect
the “swing” of the needle so changes should be made
in stages and not constantly. The aim is to keep the
needle as sensitive as possible without letting it
swing to either end of the meter.

As you get close to the “On-Top” put the
VOLUME/SENSITIVITY at a suitable level and leave
it there

Minimize your heading changes as well.

Try to identify the “On Top” by the change in volume
and any unusual movement of the needle.
ELT Homer Operation
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
Once you assess an “On Top”, call it out and mark the position
on the map or with the GPS.

Continue on the track just to confirm that this was the “On Top”.

To confirm and refine the position, conduct a second homing
from a 90 degree position. Regardless of the “On Top”, the ELT
should be close to where the two tracks cross.

To prepare for those times when you do not have a homer or it is
not working, review and practice the “Aural Null” procedures in
the CASARA Training Manual.
Search Patterns

VISUAL SEARCH PATTERNS
A Tasking for a visual search pattern will include:

The area to be searched

The type of pattern

Commence search point

The search elevation

Search visibility and/or track spacing

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Search Briefing
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As part of your SEARCH TASKING, you would
normally receive a SEARCH BRIEFING. This should
include
A comprehensive description of the weather
conditions and forecast.

A description of the search object and all pertinent
details (see the SAR Briefing / Tasking in the NSM).

Information on any other SAR assets in the area.
Search Briefing

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Communication requirements (times, agencies and
frequencies).
Your specific search tasking.

A CASARA crew shall only accept the proposed
tasking if their equipment and crew capability will
permit completion of the task with safety.

Often CASARA crews receive their taskings by phone
and it is the responsibility of the crew to ensure that
they have all the necessary information.
Search Tasking
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AREA TO BE SEARCHED
The area to be searched will normally be given in
GEOREF, in reference to the Track Line or by
designating the corners of the area.
THE TYPE OF PATTERN
Visual search patterns will be discussed later.
COMMENCE SEARCH POINT
Normally specified as a corner, i.e.. North East
corner. Some searches specify the direction of
movement as well
Search Tasking
THE SEARCH ELEVATION
 This is the height above the ground and any
obstacles that you are expected to fly over.
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
As the ground elevation will change throughout the
area, it is your responsibility to inform the pilot so that
he can adjust his flight level.

In the case of obstacles, it would not be effective to
fly a 500 ft search at 500 feet above a 1200 foot
tower so you must be aware of prominent obstacles
and coordinate with the pilot to fly the most effective
(but safe) altitude.
Search Tasking
THE SEARCH ELEVATION
 The elevation of the search aircraft is a trade-off.
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
The lower you go the less you can see to the side
and the slower you must fly to avoid making the
ground below a blur for the spotters.

1500 ft & 11/2 nm visibility: During the initial part of the
search, assets are tasked to fly at 1500 feet with a
track spacing of 3 nm
– At this elevation and width you are searching for
obvious signs of a crash or signals from a survivor
Search Tasking
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
1000 ft & 1nm visibility: As the search proceeds you
are now flying at 1000 feet above ground with 2 nm
between tracks You are primarily looking for signs of
a crash or signals from a survivor.

500 ft & 1/2nm visibility: In the most intense part of
the search you are flying at 500 feet AGL with 1 mile
between tracks. You are hoping to spot pieces of the
wreckage, manmade signals or persons on the
ground.
Search Tasking
SEARCH VISIBILITY – TRACK SPACING
 Search visibility is the distance you can expect to see
on EITHER side of the aircraft.
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
Track spacing is twice the search visibility since you
would see ½ mile to the side on leg one and ½ mile
into the same space on the next leg (see the next
slide).

It is a fact of searching that fewer targets will be
spotted at the extreme visibility distances and directly
below the aircraft.
Search Tasking
Casara

The visibilities corresponding to 1500, 1000 and 500
feet, 1 1/2, 1, and ½ approximate an angle of 28
degrees from the horizontal (72 degrees from the
vertical).

There is always some confusion between “Visibility”
and “Track Spacing”.

“Visibility” is the distance a spotter is expected to
search on his side of the aircraft.

“Track Spacing” take account of the fact that the
spotters scan one “visibility on each side of the
aircraft so the next track is two times visibility abeam.
Search Visibility And/or Track
Spacing
Visibility
Track Spacing
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Search Tasking
TYPE OF SEARCH PATTERN
 The various types of search plans have different uses
and are flown to differing parameters specified by the
Tasking Agency.
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
If you feel that the pattern specified is not
appropriate, contact the Tasking Agency to discuss it.
You are not permitted to alter the search without
letting the Search Master know.

Once tasked with an area to search, you would
normally be expected to complete the search even if
it required you to return and refuel for a second flight.
Search Tasking
Casara

With the exception of the transit to and from the
search area the aircraft will be expected to remain
WITHIN the boundaries of the designated search
area unless specifically authorized to operate
outside.

When searching inside the boundary of the search
area it is important to continue searching in the turns.

Time should be taken approximately every thirty
minutes to allow the spotters to take a rest. This is
best done prior to starting a new leg by orbiting a
reference on the ground.
Search Tasking
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
The transit altitude to and from the search area would
normally be above any search altitudes in use.

Any descent to search altitude would normally be
inside your search area unless you were in
communication with the aircraft in the adjacent area
to ensure that there was no conflict.

While transit speed will be at normal cruise speed,
any visual search should be at a reduced but safe
speed to allow the spotters a clear view of the ground
and a chance to complete their scan in an effective
manner.
Track Crawl
Casara

The Track Crawl is a search conducted along, and on
either side of, the intended flight route of the missing
aircraft.

One type specifies the search unit returns to the
origin while the other type specifies that the search
aircraft breaks off the search at the opposite end of
the track from where the search began (Non-return)

Normally used as the initial search action.
Track Crawl

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It is based on the assumption that the search object
will be close to the intended track, or there will be
survivors capable of signaling when they hear or see
the search unit.
Track Crawl - Return
Searchmaster identifies:
 The missing aircraft’s LKP and intended route to
destination.

The search altitude to be flown; and

The visibility distance.
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Track Crawl - Return

Search crew starts one visibility short of the LKP and
begins to fly a track parallel to the intended flight to
destination plus visibility distance, offset one visibility
distance to the side of the intended track.

At the end of the search track, the aircraft crosses over to
the other side of the track and flies the return leg offset
one visibility distance to the other side.

See following diagram.
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Track Crawl -Return
LKP
Destination
3nm
visibility 3 miles
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Track Crawl – Non-Return
Searchmaster identifies:
 The missing aircraft’s LKP and intended route to
destination.

The search altitude to be flown; and

The visibility distance.
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Track Crawl – Non-Return

Search crew starts one visibility short of the LKP and
begins to fly along the route of the intended flight to
destination plus visibility distance.

At the end of the leg the aircraft returns towards the start
offset two visibility distances to one side or the other.

At the “Start” end the aircraft crosses over to the
opposite side to fly back towards the destination offset at
twice the visibility distance from the intended flight route.

See the following diagram.
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Track Crawl Non-Return
3nm
6nm
LKP
6nm
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Destination
3nm
Creeping Line Ahead (CLA)
Searchmaster identifies:
 The area to be searched;

The search altitude to be flown;

The visibility distance;

The Commence Search Point: and,

The direction of flight.
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Creeping Line Ahead (CLA)

The search aircraft proceeds to the Commence
Search Point.

They fly the first track in the specified direction one
visibility distance inside the search boundary.

The second track is the reverse direction two visibility
distances offset.

The aircraft continue reversing track and offsetting
until the area has been covered.

All turns and tracks must be completed inside the
search area unless the conditions stated earlier exist.
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Creeping Line Ahead (CLA)

This search can be easily entered into an available
GPS by using Ozi–Explorer or manually by
establishing a NEW “ROUTE” using the “USE MAP”
mode.

Using the known leg length and initial track from the
commence search point, draw the first leg and
second waypoint.
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Creeping Line Ahead (CLA)

Subsequent legs and waypoints are plotted on the
GPS using a 900 offset equal to two times visibility for
WP #3 then the reciprocal of the initial track for WP
#4 and so on.

When the pattern is complete, the WPs can be
entered into a route.
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Creeping Line Ahead (CLA)
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Parallel Track
The PARALLEL TRACK is similar to the CLA but in a
direction parallel to the intended track of the missing
aircraft.
Searchmaster identifies:
 The area to be searched;

The search altitude to be flown;

The visibility distance;

The Commence Search Point: and,

The direction of flight.
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Parallel Track

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The Parallel Track pattern can be entered in the GPS in
the same manner as the CLA.
Parallel Track – Single Aircraft
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Expanding Square

This pattern is only applied to a relatively small area and
is used where there is an LKP and the object or people
may have drifted or moved away in any direction for a
small distance for example
Survivors have left the crash scene,

You have completed an ELT homing and no target is
visible

A campsite is located but the individuals are not there; or

For marine searches where the LKP is known and only a
short time has elapsed.
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Expanding Square
Searchmaster identifies:
 The LKP;

The search altitude to be flown;

The visibility distance; and,

How far from datum the search area will extend.
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Expanding Square

The search aircraft proceeds to the LKP.

Note that there are no real “boundaries” to this search. In
addition, by approaching the LKP on the same track as
first search track you can simplify your entry to the search.

Since no initial track is specified, I always enter on North
(True) and make all turns to the right.

Depart the LKP on a track of North for 2 X VISIBILITY then
turn RIGHT.
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Expanding Square

Fly EAST for 2 X VISIBILITY then turn SOUTH.

Fly SOUTH for 4 X VISIBILITY then turn WEST.

Fly WEST for 4 X VISIBILITY and return to the NORTH.

Continue increasing the legs lengths by 2 X VISIBILITY
every second leg with 900 right turns at the end of each leg
until you reach the specified extension from DATUM
(LKP).
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Expanding Square

This search can be entered on the GPS with Ozi-Explorer
or manually plotted using the technique described earlier.

It can also be flown by eye using a suitable scale on the
GPS. Time is of the essence in commencing this search
and it is a complicated one to plot. Flying by eye on the
GPS with track enabled is simple, fast and accurate.
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Expanding Square
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Sector Search
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Used when the LKP is established with a high degree of
accuracy and the search area is relatively small, for
example:
Persons lost in the bush and their whereabouts are
established in a small area.
When an “On Top” is established on an ELT or PLB but no
one is seen.
Sector Search
Searchmaster identifies:
 The LKP and intended route to destination.

The search altitude to be flown; and

The leg length (radius) of the sector search.

While no “visibility” is specified, the search altitude is tied
to a specific “VIS” (1500 ft = 1 ½, 1000 ft = 1 and 500 ft =
½).
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Sector Search

Once again, for simplicity’s sake, fly the initial track on
NORTH (True) with all turns right.

Also set up to commence the search one LEG LENGTH
short of the LKP.

After crossing the LKP, the aircraft proceeds NORTH
(true) for 1 X LEG LENGTH, then turns 120 degrees (to
the right) to track 1200(t) to intercept the next inbound
leg of 2400(t) which takes the aircraft through the LKP
and out 1 X LEG LENGTH on the other side.
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Sector Search

The pattern continues with 1200 turns at the end of
each outbound leg.

If the search is to continue after all sectors have been
completed, the search can continue off set by 30
degrees (to the right) with the initial leg now at 0300(t)

Spotters should continue to search throughout this
short search.
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Sector Search
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Sector Search

This search can be programmed on the GPS from the
Ozi-Explorer or it can be entered in the “NEW ROUTE”
mode using the map.

Because the route will intersect itself a number of times,
legs which cross over the LKP should not use a WP at
the LKP but continue out to the outer limit of the search
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Sector Search
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Sector Search

For a rapid response, the search can be flown by using
the GPS readout to the LKP as a VOR / DME type of
facility if you are familiar with this type of navigation.

On the initial run in, you would require the LKP to read
0000(t) with the mileage counting down from VIS to 0.

Outbound, the bearing would be the reciprocal (1800(t))
with the mileage increasing to approximately the VIS.
.
At VIS outbound, the aircraft turn 1200 and arcs at the
VIS to intercept the next inbound 2400(t). And so on.

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Contour Search

Before flying a Contour Search, the crew must have a
thorough understanding of mountain searches and
mountain flying techniques:

An excellent précis on flying Contour Searches is
contained in the CASARA Training Manual and the
navigation requirements will not be discussed here.
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Contour Search
Patterns are flown left or right hand turns based on
aircraft requirements and the terrain to be searched.
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Coast Crawl – Shoreline Search

Normally used where there is a missing vessel with
casualties in the water :

Also used where a person has gone missing either from
the shore or while at sea.

Should be done at low tide but cover up to the high tide
mark.

Because the object to be sighted may be small, a coast
crawl is normally done at low altitude and slow speed.
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Coast Crawl – Shoreline Search
Searchmaster identifies:
 The start and finish point along the coast .

The search altitude to be flown; and

The visibility distance.

And how far offshore you are to search .
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Coast Crawl – Shoreline Search

Commence search at the nearest end of the search area.

Follow the coast line ensuring you check any small bays
or inlets (with perhaps a second pass to ensure
coverage).

At the end of the search area, off set by 2 X VISIBILITY
and using your best assessment, return following the
same route but further offshore.
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Coast Crawl – Shoreline Search

Continue until the distance off shore can no longer be
estimated.

At this point you can establish two WPs and plot a CLA to
the defined distance off shore.
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Coast Crawl – Shoreline Search
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Notice of Crash / Casualty
Location
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
Whenever a crash or a casualty is located , it is critical that the
information be conveyed in an accurate, professional, complete
and discreet manner.

Any errors or misinterpretations can lead to devastating
consequences as we witnessed at the mine disaster in West
Virginia. Twenty three miners were reported “alive” when in fact
there was only one severely injured survivor.

The NOCL is only sent where you judge that you have located
the search object or related survivors.
Notice of Crash / Casualty Location
Casara
NOCL Message Format
Also refer to inside back cover of CASARA Handbook
ALPHA (identification)
 Affirmative - positive identification that the object sighted
is the search object
or
 Negative - unable to positively determine that the object
is the search object.

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Note that you figure that this is the search object hence
the NOCL but you don’t have positive identification (view
of the registration for example).
NOCL Message Format
BRAVO (position)
 An eight or nine digit group denoting position in Latitude
and Longitude without north or west being used.
Bravo 4846 5237
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NOCL Message Format
CHARLIE (casualties)
 NEGATIVE - when no survivors or casualties can be
seen.

NUMBER
–
–
–
–
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- any number of survivors or casualties actually
seen, followed by:
Undetermined - when the status of the survivors or
casualties cannot be determined
Red - Immediate treatment and evacuation (priority 1)
Yellow - Early treatment and evacuation (priority 2)
Green - Routine treatment and evacuation (priority 3)
NOCL Message Format
CHARLIE (cont’d)
– Blue - Deferred treatment and evacuation (priority 4)
– White - Uninjured
– Grey - Missing
– Black – Dead
Note: This information on the medical conditions of
victims can only be transmitted after investigation by
SAR TECHS or other medically trained personnel.
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NOCL Message Format
DELTA (terrain – quickest way to provide assistance)
 ONE - side of hill, also indicate N,S, E or W slope
 TWO - in valley, also indicate N, S, E or W side of
valley floor
 THREE - in level country
 FOUR - heavily wooded area (can be used with
one, two or three
 FIVE - in water: ALPHA - near shore
BRAVO - well off shore
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NOCL Message Format
ECHO (Type of assistance)




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ONE - request authorization to deploy SAR Techs
TWO - a helicopter will be required
THREE - a ground party could reach the location
in good time
FOUR - a rescue boat will be required
NOCL Message Format
FOXTROT (remarks)
 Remarks - Briefly provide any detail which will allow
JRCC to initiate appropriate action, bearing in mind
that the transmission is not secure.
For example:
– inform how long you can remain on the scene
– request an ETA for onscene of SAR aircraft or
relief aircraft
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Air Tasking Debrief

The Searchmaster, JRCC or the Search Coordinator
draw up the master plan for a search and assign the
taskings but they are not in the air with the crews and
only get an idea of the success or shortcomings of their
plan when they read with the debriefings provided by the
crews at the end of the flight.

They use this information to determine the next days
effort and to possibly eliminate areas from the search.

Phone, fax or e-mail in directly, or if this is not possible
relay through nearest FSS or ATC unit.
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Air Tasking Debrief
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