CASARA NATIONAL
NAVIGATOR COURSE
The Aircraft and Safety
Casara
CASARA Aircraft
Casara
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CASARA Aircraft are aircraft with a normal C of A and
preferably a four place high wing configuration,
however other aircraft with a normal C of A may be
used.

As the aircraft is normally flown under Visual Flight
Rules, navigation equipment may be minimal
however GPS systems are more and more common
and capable.

Normally they can carry enough fuel for
approximately five (5) hours flying but weight
limitations and a four person CASARA crew limits the
fuel load.
Engine Management
The following instruments and controls relate to the
operation of the engine:
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Casara
Tachometer – engine RPM
– Normal indication of “power”
Throttle
– Controls “power”
Engine Management
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Casara
Mixture
– Controls leanness of fuel/air mixture.
Carb Heat
– Controls temperature of air being fed to the engine
(to prevent icing of the carburator)
Fuel System

Typically 2 or 4 fuel tanks
– Pilot must select the tank from which to draw fuel.

Fuel gauges are often unreliable and the fuel tanks
must be dipped prior to flight to determine the correct
fuel reading.
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The amount of fuel carried is a function of the
maximum weight of the aircraft and the weight of the
“load” ie. Pax and cargo not including fuel.
Casara
Fuel Load
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Casara
A Cessna 172 has a maximum weight (AUW) (A/C
basic weight + pax + cargo + fuel) of 2300 lbs
AUW
=
2300 lbs
Basic weight
=
1477 lbs
Pax (4)
=
700 lbs
Cargo
=
15 lbs
Available fuel
=
108 lbs or 18 US gal
Endurance for this configuration is 18 US gal with a
fuel burn of 8 gph or 2 hrs + 12 min
Fuel System

Fuel use is measured in gallons/hour
– 172 is typically 8 US Gal/hour (approx 31 L)
– 172 normal tanks hold 42 Gals or 159.0 L, (40
Usable or 151.5 L)

1 US Gal of Avgas weighs 6 Lbs

1 L = 1.6 lbs
Casara
Speed vs Fuel
Casara
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A/C speed will effect enroute times and the amount of
fuel used.
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Check with the pilot to determine speed en-route to
the search (transit) and speed during the search.

Confirm fuel carried and fuel consumption figures
with the pilot.
Cockpit and Instrument Panel
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Casara
On the next two slides we will review a typical light
aircraft cockpit and instrument panel and highlight
some of the controls and instruments.
Cessna 172 Cockpit
Carb heat
Fuel Indicators
Throttle
Circuit
Casara
Breakers
Fuel Selector
Mixture
“Typical” Aircraft Panel
Airspeed
Artificial
Altimeter
Horizon
Audio panel/
Intercom
GPS
Nav/Comm 1
Nav/Comm 2
Transponder
Directional
Vertical Speed Indicator
(VSI)
Gyro
Casara
Tacometer
Navigation Instruments
Casara
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Compass:
– Primary source of heading information
– Most accurate when read after a short time in level
flight
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Directional Gyro (DG):
– Stable heading info
– Must be read in level flight
– Must be reset to the Compass from time to time.
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
Altimeter:
• Only as accurate as the Altimeter Setting.
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
VOR (VHF Omni Range)
– Appropriate frequency must be set on the VOR
controller.
– Provides a course to or from the VOR transmitter.
– May be displayed as a pointer or an “on-track”
indication.
– For “on-track” indication, the course to be flown
must be dialed in on the instrument.
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
ADF (automatic direction finder)
– Appropriate frequency must be set on the ADF
controller.
– Provides a bearing to / from the NDB (Beacon)
transmitter.
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
GPS (Global Positioning System)
– Based on timed signal from satellites far in space.
– Very accurate (down to 20 feet or less)
– Shows position as a readout of Latitude and
Longitude or on a display of various levels of
complexity (cont’d)
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
GPS (Global Positioning System)
– Also shows:
– ground speed,
– track,
– time to the next waypoint,
– time to destination
– as well as a number of other features depending
on the unit. (cont’d)
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
GPS (Global Positioning System)
– Plotting Search Patterns.
– In most units it is possible to lay out the search
pattern directly on the map page of the unit by
slewing from position to position in the search
pattern and entering them as way points (cont’d)
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
GPS (Global Positioning System)
– Sightings.
– When you have a sighting of a possible target it is
also possible to enter the position rapidly as a
waypoint for later reference.
– It is critical that you are familiar with this procedure
(cont’d)
Navigation Instruments
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Casara
GPS (Global Positioning System)
– Nearest airport- Most GPSs have a feature which
allows you to display the bearing and distance to
the nearest airports in the event of an emergency.
– Some aircraft systems depend on batteries versus
aircraft power.(cont’d)
Navigation Instruments
Casara
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GPS (Global Positioning System)
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There are numerous types of GPS systems and all
come with a comprehensive manual …
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While the CASARA navigator must be able to operate
effectively without the GPS, his/her accuracy is
greatly enhanced if he/she is proficient with the GPS.
Aircraft Instruments
Casara
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This next slide shows a typical instrument panel.

Be sure to be familiar with the necessary controls in
the aircraft in which you will be flying.
Typical Flight Instruments
Compass
Air
Speed
Attitude
Indicator
Altimeter
VOR
Turn
Coordinator
Directional
Gyro
Fuel
Tach
Casara
VSI
ADF
Flight Instruments & Safety
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Casara
While the navigators role is to navigate, he/she can also
act as a SAFETY Member if he/she knows what to look
for. (Ref: CASARA Trg Manual, p.109)
Flight Instruments & Safety
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Casara
Attitude Indicator
– Indicated the bank angle and nose-up or nose-down
attitude of the A/C
– Should reflect the visual horizon
– SAFETY- If it exceeds 30 degrees of bank, advise the
pilot.
Flight Instruments & Safety
Airspeed Indicator
– Confirm with the pilot the minimum sped he/she
intends to fly and advise him/her if he/she slows
below that speed.
Casara
Flight Instruments & Safety
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Casara
Altimeter
– Advise the pilot if he/she goes below the search
altitude he/she has specified, without advising the
crew.
– Also advise him/her if his/her altitude is within 500
feet of an obstacle of which you are aware.
Clothing

Be prepared.

Always dress as though you would have to walk out from
the area over which you are operating in typical weather
of the season.
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Footwear should be comfortable and sturdy
If it is insect season, carry a mosquito net and/or an
effective insect repellant.
(Cont’d)
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Casara
Clothing
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As spotters, we know how small a target we are so carry
some sort of signaling device such as a mirror.
If near or over water wear a personal flotation device and
be familiar with its operation and features.
(Cont’d)
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Casara
Hazards of Low Level Navigation
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There are a number of hazards and difficulties
associated with low level navigation. Some of these are:
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Birds – A frequent danger requiring a good lookout.
Towers/Power lines – These can be found anywhere and
are often not on the map.
(Cont’d)
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Casara
Hazards of Low Level Navigation
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Terrain – vegetation makes it hard to spot checkpoints
requiring anticipation and good compass work.
Aircraft Traffic – Intense in a search area made worse by
poor navigation and the possibility of sightseers in the
area.
(Cont’d)
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Casara
Hazards of Low Level Navigation
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Altitude – The shorter your visibility range for waypoints
and navigation cues.
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Airspeed – The lower you are the faster the relative
speed over the ground and he more difficult it is to notice
detail.
Casara
Casara