Chapter Focus
Section 1 Structure of Local
Government
Section 2 Serving Localities
Section 3 Challenges of
Urban Growth
Chapter Assessment
Chapter Objectives
•
Structure of Local Government Describe and
compare various forms of local government.
•
Serving Localities Explain how local
governments provide a range of services to
residents of the community.
•
Challenges of Urban Growth Identify
problems that metropolitan areas face and
potential solutions.
Structure of Local Government
Key Terms
county, county board, township, municipality,
special district, incorporation, referendum
Find Out
• What are the four basic types of local government
according to the areas they serve?
• What are the similarities and differences
among the three major structural forms of
municipal government?
Structure of Local Government
Understanding Concepts
Federalism What is the relationship between a
state government and local governments?
Section Objective
Describe and compare various forms of
local government.
The Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of
southern California is a special district of
local government created to handle a serious
problem. Set up in 1928 to supplement local
water supplies of its original 13 membercities, today it serves 15 million people in
more than 239 southern California
communities. The MWD has developed long
range water-management plans that include
studying methods of reducing demand and
conserving water, forecasting the area’s
future water needs, and researching ways of
assuring purity in local water supplies.
I. Created by the State (page 663)
A. Local governments have no legal
independence; each is dependent on its
state government.
B. State constitutions set forth the powers and
duties of local governments.
II. Types of Local Government (pages 663–665)
A. The four basic types of local government are
1) the county,
2) the township,
3) the municipality, and
4) the special district.
B. The county is normally the largest territorial
and political subdivision of the state.
Counties vary in number, size, population,
power, and influence.
C. In most metropolitan areas, the county
government has been growing
more powerful.
II. Types of Local Government (pages 663–665)
D. In most counties, a county board has both
executive and legislative powers. Board
officials are usually elected by the voters.
E. Townships exist in less than half the states,
and their powers and duties vary from state
to state.
F. In New England, select men now make
some of the decisions citizens once made in
the direct democracy of a town meeting.
G. The municipality is an urban unit of
government that has legal rights granted to it
by the state.
II. Types of Local Government (pages 663–665)
H. The special district is a unit of local
government that deals with a specific function
such as education or transportation.
I. Some states also have a separate tribal
government that serves its Native
American population.
II. Types of Local Government (pages 663–665)
Do you agree that New England town
meetings are “the perfect exercise of self
government’’? Why or why not?
Answers will vary. Smaller towns still
exercise direct democracy; larger towns and
cities do not because the process is too
cumbersome for large groups of people.
III. Forms of Municipal Government
(pages 666–668)
A. A municipal government may be formed
when people in a community ask the state
legislature to permit their community
to incorporate.
B. Urban areas in the United States use one of
three basic forms of government:
1) the mayor-council,
2) the commission, or
3) the council-manager.
C. In the most widely used form of municipal
government, the mayor-council form,
executive power belongs to an elected
mayor and the legislative power to an
elected council.
III. Forms of Municipal Government
(pages 666–668)
D. There are two types of mayor-council
government:
1) the strong-mayor system and
2) the weak-mayor system.
E. The commission form of municipal
government combines executive and
legislative powers in an elected commission
that passes laws and makes policy decisions.
III. Forms of Municipal Government
(pages 666–668)
F. Under the council-manager
form of government, the
executive and legislative
powers are separated. The
council acts as a legislative
body and makes the policy
of the municipality. A
manager carries out the
council’s policies and serves
as chief administrator.
III. Forms of Municipal Government
(pages 666–668)
Which type of mayor-council government
do you think is preferable, the strong
mayor type or the weak-mayor type?
Answers will vary. See description of mayoral
powers on text page 666.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one
below to compare the separation of powers in
the mayor-council form of municipal government
to that of the federal government.
Municipal: mayor has executive powers,
council has legislative powers.
Federal: president has executive powers,
Congress has legislative powers
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
B county
A. a special election
___
E township
B. the largest political subdivision of a
state
___
F municipality
C. the process of setting up a legal
community under state law
___
D special district
___
C incorporation
___
A referendum
D. a unit of local government that deals
with a specific function
E. a unit of local government found in
some states, usually a subdivision of
a county
F. an urban unit of government
chartered by a state
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify mayor-council form, commission form,
council-manager form.
A mayor-council form is a form of municipal
government in which executive power belongs
to the major and legislative power to an
elected council.
A commission form is an elected
commission that combines executive and
legislative powers.
A council-manager form is a type of
municipal government in which legislative and
executive powers are separated.
Checking for Understanding
4. Analyze the structure of county government.
elected county board has legislative and
executive power; board members head
departments; board members may share
executive power with other officers who
are elected
Checking for Understanding
5. Compare the methods of selection of the
heads of departments in the three forms of
city government.
Mayor appoints heads in mayor-council form.
City manager appoints heads in councilmanager form, and elected commissioners are
heads in the commission form.
Critical Thinking
6. Drawing Conclusions Why do many large
cities prefer the council-manager form of
municipal government?
Political experts believe it leads to better
management and responsible government
because executive and legislative powers are
clearly separated, making it easy for voters to
assign praise or blame.
Federalism The four basic types of local
government that exist in the United States
are the county, the township, the
municipality, and the special district. Choose
one type of local government that exists
where you live. Create a diagram that
shows how it is organized. The diagram
should indicate the officials that make up the
government and their functions.
Serving Localities
Key Terms
zoning, mass transit, metropolitan area, suburbs,
real property, personal property, assessment,
market value
Find Out
• What are the major issues surrounding the
services local governments provide?
• How do special districts and regional
arrangements help local governments serve the
needs of communities?
Serving Localities
Understanding Concepts
Political Processes What are some examples of
changes in local government structure or function
that helped address issues of concern to citizens?
Section Objective
Explain how local governments provide a range of
services to residents of the community.
The Texas Board of Education recently
asked the Texas Education Agency, which
administers the public schools, to consider
replacing classroom textbooks with laptop
computers. If Texas adopts this plan
statewide, it may lease laptops for the
state’s 3.9 million students and use
computer technology to update or even
replace textbooks.
I. Local Government Services (pages 669–671)
A. Local school districts provide most of the
money and make most of the decisions
regarding the operation of public schools.
B. Local governments use zoning to regulate
the way land and buildings are used.
C. Police and fire protection make up a large
part of the local budget.
D. Local governments make vital decisions
regarding road maintenance, water service,
and sewage disposal and treatment.
E. Many local governments offer important
services to citizens who have special needs
and provide recreation and cultural
programs for their residents.
I. Local Government Services (pages 669–671)
Name the local government services that
you think are most necessary. Explain.
Answers will vary. Students may mention
education, fire protection, water supply, etc.
II. Metropolitan Communities (pages 671–672)
A. Urban communities differ greatly in size.
B. Cities are densely populated areas
with residential, commercial, and
industrial sections.
C. Cities in the southern and western United
States are the fastest growing.
D. In the nation’s early years, most Americans
lived in small towns. After the 1860s, cities
grew faster than towns and villages. Between
1950 and 1990, suburbs, small towns, and
rural areas again attracted many Americans.
II. Metropolitan Communities (pages 671–672)
What shifts in population, if any, have
occurred in your community in the past
10 years?
Answers will vary. Discuss causes of growth,
decline, or change.
III. Special Districts (page 673)
A. Local governments frequently establish
special districts to solve problems.
B. The school district is governed by the
school board.
III. Special Districts (page 673)
What are some ways that students below
voting age can participate in school
board elections?
Campaigning for a candidate; helping get out
the vote.
IV. Regional Arrangements (page 673)
A. In the 1990s, local governments joined to
develop new approaches for handling
regional problems.
B. Cooperative efforts have solved land use,
water supply, waste management, and law
enforcement problems.
IV. Regional Arrangements (page 673)
What are some examples of cooperative
efforts among local governments?
Answers will vary. See Regional Arrangements
on text page 673.
V. Financing Local Government (pages 673–675)
A. Local governments finance services by
levying taxes, such as property taxes.
B. Most Americans view property taxes as
unfair: they place a heavier burden on those
with low incomes and may result in unequal
public services.
C. Revenue sources for local governments
include local income taxes, sales taxes,
fines and fees, government-owned
businesses, bonds, and state grants.
V. Financing Local Government (pages 673–675)
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the
one below to compare the advantages of
using mass transit with those of driving
personal automobiles.
Mass transit: more efficient, less polluting, uses
less energy.
Personal auto: independence.
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
C zoning
___
E suburbs
___
F real
property
___
A personal
property
A. movable belongings such as clothes
and jewelry, as well as intangibles such
as stocks and bonds
B. the amount of money an owner may
expect to receive if property is sold
C. the means a local government uses to
regulate the way land and buildings may
be used in order to shape community
development
___
D assessment
D. the process involved in calculating the
value of a property to be taxed
___
B market
value
E. a densely settled territory adjacent to a
central city
F. land and whatever is attached to or
growing on it
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify Metropolitan Statistical Areas.
Metropolitan Statistical Areas are large
urban areas.
Checking for Understanding
4. Analyze three goals of zoning.
Students should discuss planning for
regulated growth, preserving the character of
neighborhoods, and preventing the decline of
land values.
Checking for Understanding
5. Why is the property tax considered by some
people to be an unfair tax?
It is regressive and results in unequal public
services. In addition, determining property
values on a fair and equal basis is difficult.
Property that some institutions own is exempt
from property tax, so nonexempt property
owners pay a larger share of the tax burden.
Critical Thinking
6. Analyzing Information Why do local
governments, with state and federal assistance,
provide social services to residents?
People without jobs, without proper health care,
or without money for food, clothing, or shelter
need assistance.
Political Processes Obtain a copy of
the most recent budget of your local
government. Write an article identifying
the services that account for most of the
budget. Also, identify the main sources
of your local government’s revenue.
Include your suggestions for change,
either in spending priorities or in sources
of revenue.
Challenges of Urban Growth
Key Terms
urban renewal, infrastructure, revitalization,
gentrification, metropolitan government
Find Out
• How have shifts in the population affected cities
and their governments in recent years?
• What large problems do metropolitan
governments face today and in the future?
Challenges of Urban Growth
Understanding Concepts
Federalism What is the financial relationship
between local governments and state and
federal governments?
Section Objective
Identify problems that metropolitan areas face and
potential solutions.
In the 1990s one of the most significant
shifts in population was from large cities and
suburbs to small towns. Two million more
Americans moved from metropolitan centers
to rural areas than migrated the other way
during that decade. There were many
reasons for this population shift. Some
families moved to escape the social
problems of the cities. Some were attracted
by the lower taxes, more affordable housing,
and the slower pace of small town life.
I. Population and Housing (pages 677–679)
A. Municipal governments attempt to manage
land use to encourage orderly growth. This
is difficult since population shifts have
caused inner cities to decline.
B. Mayors of large cities in decline appealed to
the federal government for help in the 1950s
and 1960s.
C. The federal government provided massive
spending to help cities address their housing
problems. The results were not encouraging.
I. Population and Housing (pages 677–679)
D. Urban renewal programs added new lowrent public housing, but slowed construction
of other types of housing.
E. For many years, suburbs and smaller
communities excluded African Americans
and other minorities, and apartment owners
discriminated against the elderly, the poor,
and families with children.
F. Many large cities responded to the housing
shortage by renovating older housing units.
The federal government also provided loans
to local housing authorities through public
housing programs.
I. Population and Housing (pages 677–679)
How do you think municipal governments
should deal with the decline of inner cities?
Answers will vary. See Managing Decline on
text page 677.
II. Social Problems (pages 679–680)
A. Large cities face serious social problems.
B. Unemployment and housing shortages
contribute to the problem of homeless people.
C. The federal government, through the
media, has publicized drug abuse and
spent huge amounts for drug treatment
and prevention programs.
II. Social Problems (pages 679–680)
What social problem do you think most
affects your neighborhood?
Students may mention poverty, homelessness,
crime, drug abuse, alcohol abuse.
III. Meeting Future Challenges (pages 680–682)
A. Large cities also have many problems that
add to their financial burdens.
B. The infrastructure of older large cities shows
severe signs of wear and needs repair.
C. Local governments encourage the public
to use mass transit to reduce traffic and
air pollution.
D. Cities struggle to solve their financial
problems, and recently have focused on
stimulating greater economic development.
III. Meeting Future Challenges (pages 680–682)
E. Beginning in the 1980s, middle income
suburbanites and recent immigrants moved
into the cities, often restoring old houses and
other buildings. While this improved many
neighborhoods, it also displaced residents.
F. In the 1980s, the nation’s attention seemed
to be shifting from city problems to
suburban opportunities.
G. Many people feel that metropolitan
government must be reorganized to serve
a larger region and to reduce government
waste and duplication of services.
III. Meeting Future Challenges (pages 680–682)
Discuss the pros and cons of
gentrification and how it affects
neighborhoods in large cities.
Pro: Restores vitality to the city, brings in
new business;
Con: raises property taxes, drives out
long-time residents.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one
below to compare challenges that municipal
governments faced in the 1950s to those they
face today.
1950s: job losses, deteriorating housing, poor
sanitary conditions, rising crime rates
Today: repairing infrastructure, maintaining and
developing mass transit, providing for
economic development, dealing with issues
resulting from gentrification
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
D urban renewal
___
A infrastructure
___
E revitalization
___
B gentrification
___
C metropolitan
government
A. the basic facilities of a city
B. the phenomenon of new people
moving into a neighborhood,
forcing out those who live there
and changing the area’s
essential character
C. a type of government that
serves several different
communities in the same region
D. programs under which cities
apply for federal aid to clear
slum areas and rebuild
E. investments in new facilities in
an effort to promote economic
growth
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify Drug Enforcement Administration,
Office of National Drug Control Policy.
The Drug Enforcement Administration is a
federal program that enforces the controlled
substances laws and regulations of the
United States.
The Office of National Drug Control Policy is
a federal program that establishes policies,
priorities, and objectives for the nation’s drug
control program.
Checking for Understanding
4. What are the positive and negative outcomes
of gentrification?
Positive: It restores vitality to the city by
reclaiming deteriorating property and bringing
new business to decayed areas.
Negative: It accelerates property sales, inflating
property values and increasing taxes; property
becomes too expensive for poorer residents to
remain in these neighborhoods.
Checking for Understanding
5. How would a metropolitan government address
urban problems?
Metropolitan government would reduce
government waste and duplication of services;
it also might provide services such as water,
sewage disposal, and sanitation.
Critical Thinking
6. Predicting Consequences Analyze additional
problems cities will face if governments are
unable to fund replacement of urban
infrastructures.
more traffic congestion; problems with services
such as water, sewage disposal, and sanitation
Federalism Mayors of large cities must
present strong arguments to get federal
funds to address city problems. What
could a mayor say to the president and
Congress to support the cities’ cause?
Research the types of projects that would
benefit your community. Write a proposal
explaining the need for federal money to
support that project for your community.
Reviewing Key Terms
Write the term that best completes each sentence.
county
municipality
special district
zoning
market value
real property
infrastructure
revitalization
gentrification
metropolitan government
1. Basic facilities such as streets, water lines, and public
buildings make up what is known as the
infrastructure
_______________________
of a city.
2. The government does not tax property on the
_______________________,
market value
or the amount of money the
owner may expect to receive if the property is sold.
3. To promote economic growth, local governments have tried
_______________________
through large investments in
revitalization
new facilities.
Reviewing Key Terms
Write the term that best completes each sentence.
county
municipality
special district
zoning
market value
real property
infrastructure
revitalization
gentrification
metropolitan government
county
4. In the South and in rural areas ___________________
government is important.
5. Local governments may use _______________________
zoning
to control growth.
real property
6. Local governments rely on _______________________
taxes as a main source of revenue.
7. Some people feel that the best way to address urban
problems is reorganization using
metropolitan government that serves a large region.
_______________________
Reviewing Key Terms
Write the term that best completes each sentence.
county
municipality
special district
zoning
market value
real property
infrastructure
revitalization
gentrification
metropolitan government
municipality
8. Originally, a charter for a _______________________
was
much like one that states granted to corporations.
9. A public school district is a _______________________
special district
established by local government.
10. Sometimes called “displacement,”
gentrification
_______________________
has often changed the
character of an urban area.
Recalling Facts
1. What document specifies the powers and duties
of local government?
The state constitution specifies the powers and
duties of local government.
2. What are the three main forms of municipal
government?
The three main forms of municipal government
are mayor-council form, commission form, and
council-manager form.
Recalling Facts
3. What is the single largest public service
provided by local tax revenues?
The single largest public service provided by
local tax revenues is public education.
4. What is the biggest government expenditure for
many large American cities?
The biggest government expenditure for many
large American cities is social services.
Recalling Facts
5. Describe four kinds of population shifts in
metropolitan areas since 1950.
Cities and suburbs in the South and West grew
rapidly, cities in the Northeast and Midwest lost
population, the population of small towns and
rural areas increased, and people moved from
inner cities to suburbs.
Understanding Concepts
1. Federalism What is the relationship between a
state and a municipality within that state?
The state creates the municipality by granting it
a charter to govern.
Understanding Concepts
2. Political Processes Why did some state
supreme courts rule against using the property
tax to pay for local schools?
Some state supreme courts ruled that using the
property tax to support local schools was a
violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s
guarantee of equal protection of the law. For
example, a wealthy community with a large tax
base can afford better public services than a
less wealthy community with a small tax base.
The court held that the practice discriminated
against students in poor communities.
Critical Thinking
1. Making Comparisons Use a Venn diagram
like the one below to compare a local
government’s charter to a state constitution.
Local charter: provides structure and rules for
local government.
State constitution: provides structure and rules
for state government.
Both: established by state officials.
Critical Thinking
2. Identifying Central Issues In your view, which
of the federal government’s goals in dealing
with the illegal drug problem is the most
important? Why?
Answers will vary. Some students will support
prevention, others treatment, and still others
controlling the supply.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
1. Whom do the two figures represent?
Uncle Sam (the United States federal
government) and United States cities
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
2. What statement is the cartoonist making about
the state of cities?
Cities are experiencing difficulties because of a
lack of funding and unfunded mandates handed
down from the federal government; cities are
disabled and need federal attention.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
3. According to the cartoonist, what can the
government do to help cities?
The government can send more funds to
cities and take a bigger role in solving
urban problems.
By population, what are the five largest
cities in the United States?
According to both the 1990 and 2000
census, they are, in decreasing order:
New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago,
Houston, and Philadelphia.
1) Special districts with
31,555 units
2) No; only 48 states have counties, 20
states have townships, and 45 states
have local school districts
3) small physical size
1) Jacksonville
has the
second
smallest city
population,
but the third
highest
property-tax
rate
2) Chicago; it has fewer residents, but they live in
an area less than half the size of Los Angeles,
meaning there are more people per square mile
3) Answers will vary.
1) single men
2) New York City has a
disproportionately large
number of homeless people.
3) Answers will vary.
Visualizing Local Government Supplement your
exploration of Chapter 24 by preparing posters that
serve one or more of the following purposes:
• analyze the local government structure or a local
government service
• campaign for a candidate for a local government
office or for a local issue on the ballot
• participate in your local government in various ways
Use a wide variety of media (for example, paint ,
photography, computer-generated artwork) to illustrate
your topics. Display your finished poster in the
classroom as a study aid for the chapter.
Trash Talk In the late 1800s and early 1900s,
residents of New York City dumped food, toilet waste,
and coal or wood ash into sidewalk gutters. Trash was
towed out to sea on barges and shoveled into the
ocean to wash ashore on New Jersey beaches. Today
most people take for granted a service such as
garbage collection. For local officials, however, this
service continues to pose a serious problem.
“Everyone wants you to pick up their garbage,” said
one official, “but no one wants you to put it down.” He
might have added, “. . . especially in their backyard.”
Many local governments find that providing a basic
service like garbage removal is a critical but
controversial issue.
Washington on Cities In 1791 George Washington
wrote the following to the Marquis de Lafayette—a
comment that seems prophetic until one remembers
that he was describing cities of his own time: “The
tumultuous populace of large cities are ever to be
dreaded. Their indiscriminate violence prostrates for
the time all public authority, and its consequences are
sometimes extensive and terrible.”
Louisiana’s governmental unit of the parish goes
back to the time when Louisiana was under
Spanish rule, when areas were organized into
religious divisions called parishes. Originally, a
parish was the area committed to the care of one
pastor or priest.
Some projects to revitalize inner cities have
restored rundown or abandoned market buildings
or docks instead of replacing them with new
buildings. Successfully recycled cityscapes include
San Francisco’s Ghirardelli Square, Sacramento’s
Skid Row, Baltimore’s Harborplace, and Boston’s
Quincy Market.
Board may seem an unusual term to describe a
group of people (as in a school board), but it
reflects an archaic meaning of board as a synonym
for table. Councils or groups of magistrates once
sat (and often sit today) at a table, or board, as they
held their meetings.
Super Salaries
In many American cities, it pays to be mayor. In at
least 20 major cities, mayors earn well over
$100,000 a year. Topping the list are the mayors of
New York City and Chicago, whose annual salaries
are about $200,000. Some city managers do even
better: salaries in San Diego, Oakland, Los
Angeles, and San Jose, California, exceed
$200,000. Becoming the city manager of Dallas
really makes “cents,” with an annual salary that
tops $260,000!
Gentrification Stage an informal debate about
encouraging or trying to stop the gentrification of a
hypothetical neighborhood. Supplement the
discussion in the text with additional research.
Watching Local Government Attend (in person
or by watching cable broadcasts, if available) local
government meetings, such as a session of the
county board, city council, or town or village
board. Prepare oral reports on the meetings you
viewed, providing information such as which
officials attended, who presided over the
meetings, what issues were discussed, and what
resolutions were reached.
Voters and School Policy Prepare graphs, based
on data from the local board of elections, showing
the percentage of eligible voters taking part in
school board elections over the past 10 years. How
much do voters seem to influence school policy in
this community? Propose methods of increasing
voter interest in school board elections.
Technology
Economics
Technology In most cases, town meetings are not
televised—or, if they are, the broadcast is carried
on a local cable channel. Politicians in the national
spotlight, however—leading members of Congress,
for instance, or presidential candidates—have
learned that appearing at a town meeting and
getting national media coverage for it can boost
their public image.
Economics Incorporation usually is associated
more with business than with government. A
business that incorporates is recognized as a
“person” under the law, and it allows many
individuals to invest their finances at relatively little
risk. Interested students may enjoy comparing
economic incorporation to government
incorporation and sharing their insights.
Gillian Kilberg
Gillian Kilberg said of her grandmother, “She was an
amazing woman who was always there for me.” Kilberg
has continued to show that she is there for Grandma
Rita’s Children, enlisting volunteers to chaperone trips
for children to various sites in the Washington, D.C.,
area. In 1998 the federal government recognized
Kilberg by selecting her as one of the 29 recipients of
the President’s Service Award.
Activity: What would you do to help other people if you
received a $20,000 inheritance? Compile a master list
of charitable works.
More About Teen Courts In most cases, offenders
cannot appear before a teen court unless they have
already admitted their guilt. In some teen court
programs teenagers serve not only as attorneys and
jurors but as bailiffs, clerks of the court, and even
presiding judges. Opponents of the program suggest
that teenagers do not have the maturity to render legal
decisions, pointing to cases in which judges have had
to step in and change an overly severe ruling from a
teen court. The educational benefits of the program,
however—coupled with the peer pressure exerted in
these cases—suggest that teen courts are worth
further evaluation and that they may be effective in
reducing crime.
Reforming Mayors
At the turn of the century, a trend toward reform in
local government was echoed in the Midwest by the
reforms instituted by several mayors of the time. In
Detroit, Mayor Hazen Pingree established new
schools, parks, and work programs. In Toledo,
Mayor Samuel “Golden Rule” Jones set up
municipal ownership of public utilities and tackled
police corruption. And in Cleveland, Mayor Tom
Johnson reformed city services so much that
Cleveland became known as the best-governed city
in the United States.
Clara Hale
In New York City’s Harlem, Clara Hale was ready to
retire from years of caring for foster children—and
then a drug addict with a baby came to her door,
sent by Hale’s daughter Lorraine. Thus, in 1969
Hale began Hale House, a nonprofit children’s
center supported entirely by private donations. In
1985, President Ronald Reagan praised the work
that “Mother” Hale and her daughter (who now
directs Hale House) were doing to meet urban
challenges. Today, Hale House specializes in
caring for drug-addicted and HIV-positive babies.
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