Language Policy and the Weak Languages
in Pakistan with Reference to Inequality
in Learning Outcomes
by
Dr. Tariq Rahman
HEC Distinguished National Professor and Dean, School
of Education, Beaconhouse National University, Lahore
Quality – Inequality Quandary
Transacting Learning Relevance & Teacher Education in
South Asia
Lahore April 4-5, 2012
BOX - 1
LANGUAGE
PERCENTAGE
OF SPEAKERS
NUMBER OF
SPEAKERS
Punjabi
44.15
66,225,000
Pashto
15.42
23,130,000
Sindhi
14.10
21,150,000
Siraiki
10.53
15,795,000
Urdu
7.57
11,355,000
Balochi
3.57
5,355,000
Others
4.66
6,990,000
Source: Census 2001: Table 2.7. The population is
assumed to be 150 million in 2003 as it was
132, 352,000 in 1998 and the growth rate is
2.69 per cent.
Box – 2
MOTHER TONGUE
SPEAKERS
SECOND LANGUAGE
SPEAKERS
Hindi
366,000,000
487,000,000
Urdu
60,290,000
104,000,000
Total
426,290,000
591,000,000
Grand Total:Mother tongue + second language speakers of
Urdu-Hindi = 1,017,290,000.
Source:
Grimes 2000: see under ‘Pakistan’ and ‘India’
entries.
Box -3
Language
Community & Location
Balochi
Baloch/Lyari (Karachi) one
No. of students/schools
650 up to 2011
Remarks
Started in 2003
school at Shahigoth & one in
In two pre-primary
Maroro. The latter was
schools. Now there are
shifted to Machi Goth in
four schools
2009.
Kachi
Mirpur Khaas
Two schools
Offers education up to
Magsi Goth
One called Nya Swera
class-5
& the other Amar
Ujala
Parkari
Mirpur Khaas
27 Schools
Offers education up to
Rattanabad.
1200 students
class-5
Isolated villages of the
Tharparkar & Nagar region
Source: Rehman and Zaman 2011a
Language
Palula
Community &
No. of students
Location
/schools
Ashret
Two pre-schools After one year of MLE, Urdu
(Chitral)
Remarks
and English are introduced.
Students did better than nonMLE ones in English & Maths.
Kalasha
Bamboret
One school
(Chitral)
Offers education up to class-5.
English & Urdu are introduced
from the beginning MLE
students did better in language
proficiency and mathematics.
Gawri
Kalam
Two schools
Two-years pre school MLE
(Swat)
from 2008 to
programme
2011
40 students
Torwali
Bahrain
One school
Up to class-5. However, by the
MINOR LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS OF PAKISTAN
Language Other Names/
Where Spoken
or Dialect Lexical Similarity
to other Languages
and Dialects
Aer
None. 78% lexical
similarity with Katai
Meghwar and Kachi
Bhil. 76% with
Raburi; 76% with
Kachi Koli.
Speakers Source
Jikrio Goth around 200 in
Deh 333,
1996
Hyderabad and
Jamesabad. Also
in Kach Bhuj in
Gujrat (India).
Badeshi
(Badakhshi) Dialect Bishigram, (Chail) 400 plus
see Persian of Persian. Lexical Valley, (Swat,
in 2002
similarity with
Kohistan)
Persian, Badakshan
variety.
Grimes
2000: 589
Grimes
2000:
589;
SSNP
Zaman
2004
Bagri
(Bahgri ; Bagria; Bagris;
Baorias; Bauri). Dialect
of Rajasthani 74%
lexical similarity with
Marwari Bhil of
Jodhpur; 54% with
Jandavra.
Sindh and Punjab
(nomadic between
India and
Pakistan)
200,000 Grimes
in
2000:
Pakistan 589.
including
100,000
in Sindh
Balti
Baltistani, Sbalti
Baltistan
27,000300,000
Bateri
(Bateri Kohistani;
Batera Kohistan;
Baterawal; Baterawal
Kohistani) 58-61%
lexical similarity with
Indus Kohistani; 60%
with Gurgula.
Indus Kohistan
Batera village
(East of Indus
North of Besham)
20,000- Breton
30,000
1997:
(in 1992) 200;
Grimes
2000
SSNP-2:
8&
Grimes
2000
Bhaya
Lexical similiarity to
Marwari sweeper
84% and to Malhi
75%; Bhat 73%;
Goaria,72-73%;
Sindhi Meghwar 7073%, Sindhi Bhil 6371% and Urdu 70%.
Kapri Goth near 70-700
Khipro Mirpur (in 1998)
Khas (Lower
Sindh)
Brahvi
Brohi, Brahuidi,
Kurgalli, Brahuigi,
(no similarity with
any language in
Pakistan but with
many loan words
from Persian, Balochi
and Urdu.
Kalat region and
East
Balochistan.
Also spoken by
small
communities in
Sindh and Iran
etc.
Grimes
2000
2,000,000 Grimes
in Pakistan 2000:
and
590.
2,210,000
in all
countries
(1998).
Burushaski Mishaski, Biltum,
Werchikwar
Khajuna (language
isolate with no
similarity with any
language. Some
words borrowed
from Urdu, English
and Shina).
Chilisso
Hunza, Nagar,
Yasin valleys
(Northern areas)
55,000- SSNP-2:
60,000
37
(in 1981) Grimes
2000:
590.
(Chiliss, Galos)
Koli, Palas, Jalkot 160070% lexical
Indus Kohistan
3000
similarity with
(in 1992)
Indus Kohistani; 6568% with Gowro;
50% Bateri; 48-65%
with Shina.
Breton
1997: 200
& Grimes
2000:
590.
Dameli
(Gudoji, Damia,
Damedi, Damel)
44% lexical
similarity with
Gawar-Bati, Savi,
and Phalura, 33%
with Kamviri, 29%
with Kativiri.
Damel Valley
2000SSNP-5:
(Southern Chitral) 5000
11
(in 1992) Grimes
2000:
590.
Dehwari
also see
Persian
(Deghwari) Iranian
language somewhat
close to Persian and
influenced by
Brahvi.
Kalat, Mastung
(Central
Balochistan)
10,000- Breton
13,000
1997: 200
(in 1998) & Grimes
2000:
590.
Dhatki
(Dhati) Dialects are
Eastern, Southern
and Central Dhatki,
Malhi and Barage.
Varies from
Northern Marwari
but intelligible. 7083% lexical
similarity with
Marwari dialects.
Lower Sind in
Tharparkar and,
Sanghar.
200,000 Grimes
plus
2000: 590
(in 1987)
Domaaki
(Domaski, Doma)
loan words from
Shina and
Burushaski but not
intelligible to
speakers of both.
Mominabad
(Hunza & Nagar)
300 plus SSNP 2:
(in 2002) 79;
Grimes
2000:
590.
Personal
observati
on in
2002.
GawarBati
(Narsati, Nurisati,
Gowari,
Aranduiwar, Satr,
Gowar-bati) 47%
lexical similarity
with Shumashti,
44% with Dameli,
42% with Savi and
Grangali.
Southern Chitral,
Arandu, Kunar
river along
PakistanAfghanistan
border
1500
SSNP-5:
(in 1992) 156
Breton
1997: 200
& Grimes
2000:
591.
Ghera
(Sindhi Ghera,
Bara) Quite
different
grammatically from
Gurgula and similar
to Urdu. 87%
lexical similarity
with Gurgula. 70%
with Urdu.
Hyderabad Sindh
10,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000
Goaria
75-83% lexical
Cities of Sindh
similarity with Jogi;
76-80% with
Marwari sweeper;
72-78% with
Marwari Meghwar;
70-78% with
Loarki.
20,000- Grimes
25,000
2000: 591
(in 1998)
Gowro
(Gabaro, Gabar
Khel) 62% lexical
similarity with
Indus Kohistani;
60% with Bateri;
65-68% with
Chilisso; 40-43%
with Shina.
200 or
Breton
less
1997: 200
(in 1990) &
Grimes
2000:
591.
Indus Kohistan
(on the eastern
bank, Kolai Area,
Mahrin village)
Gujari
(Gujuri, Gojri,
Gogri Kashmir
Gujuri, Gujuri
Rajasthani) close to
Hindko and related
varieties of Greater
Punjabi. 64-94%
lexical similarity
among dialects.
Swat, Dir,
Northern areas,
Azad Kashmir and
Punjab
300,000700,000
plus
(in 1992)
SSNP-3:
96 &
Grimes
2000:
591.
Gujrati
(Gujrati)
Karachi, other
parts of Sindh.
Major language in
India.
45,479,0 Grimes
00 in
2000: 439
India and and 591.
46,100,0
00 in all
countries.
Probably
100,000
in
Pakistan.
Gurgula
(Marwari, Ghera)
87% Lexical
similarity with
Ghera
Karachi, cities of
Sindh
35,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000
Hazargi
(Hazara, Hezareh,
Hezare’i) similar to
Persian
220,000 Grimes
(in 1998) 2000:
592.
Hindko
(Hazara Hindko,
Peshawar Hindko,
Hindki) a variety of
Greater Punjabi.
Intelligible to
Punjabi and Siraiki
speakers.
Quetta and other
cities of Pakistan.
Also in
Afghanistan.
Mansehra,
Abbottabad,
Haripur, Attock
Districts. The
inner city of
Peshawar and
Kohat etc.
Jandavra
(Jhandoria) 74%
lexical similarity
with Bagri and
Katai Meghwar,
68% with Kachi
Koli.
Southern Sindh
from Hyderabad
to Mirpur Khas
5000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000:
592.
3,000,00 Grimes
0 in 1993 2000:
i.e. 2.4% 592.
of the
populatio
n.
Jatki
Kabutra
Kachchi
Kalami
(Jatgali, Jadgali, Jat) Southern
Balochistan and
Southwest Sindh.
Also in Iran.
(Nat, Natra)
Umarkot, Kunri,
intelligibility with
Nara Dhoro
Sansi and Sochi.
(Sindh)
74% lexical
similarity with
Sochi.
(Cutch, Kachi)
Karachi
similar to Sindhi.
(Bashgharik, Dir
Kohistani,
Bashkarik, Diri,
Kohistani, Dirwali,
Kalami Kohistani,
Gouri, Kohistani,
Bashkari, Gawri,
Garwi)
Upper Swat
Khoistan from
Kalam to upper
valleys also in Dir
Kohistan
100,000
in both
countries
(1998)
1,000
(in 1998)
Grimes
2000:
592.
Grimes
2000
50,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000:
592.
60,000- Baart
70,000
1999: 4
(in 1995)
Kalasha
(Kalashwar,
Urtsuniwar,
Kalashamon,
Kalash)
Kalash Valleys
2900SSNP-5:
(Chitral) Southern 5700
11;
(in 1992) Grimes
2000:
593.
Kalkoti
69% lexical
similarity with
Kalami but Kalami
speakers do not
understand Kalkoti.
Dir Kohistan in
Kalkot village
Kamviri
(Skekhani,
Chitral (Southern
Kamdeshi,
end of Bashgal
Lamertiviri, Kamik) Valley)
there is a variety of
Kativiri also called
Skekhani.
6000
Breton
(in 2002) 1997:
200;
Zaman
2002;
Grimes
2000: 593
2000
SSNP-5:
(in 1992) 143;
Grimes
2000:
593.
Kashmiri
(Keshuri)
The Valley of
Kashmir &
Diaspora in
Pakistan
Kativiri
(Bashgali, Kati,
(Chitral) Gobar
Nuristani, Shekhani) Linkah Valleys
Eastern Kativiri in
Pakistan.
3700Grimes
5100
2000:
(in 1992) 593;
Strand
2004.
Khetrani
Similar to Siraiki
but influence by
Balochi
Few
Grimes
thousand 2000:
(in 1987) 593.
Northeast
Balochistan
4,391,00
0 in
India.
About
105,000
in
Pakistan
(in 1993)
Breton
1997:
200;
Grimes:
2000: 593
Khowar
(Chitrali, Qashqari,
Chitral,
Arniya, Patu, Kohwar, Northern areas,
Kashkara)
Ushu in
northern Swat
250,000 SSNP-5:
plus (in 11 Breton
1993)
1997: 200;
Grimes
2000: 593.
Kohistani
(Indus Kohistani, Dir Indus Kohistan
Kohistani, Kohiste,
West bank of
Khili, Maiyon, Maiya, river
Shuthun, Mair)
220,000 Grimes
(in
2000: 594.
1993)
Koli Kachi (Kachi, Koli,
Kachi Koli) similar to
Sindhi and Gujrati
(78% lexical
similarity) but being
influenced more by
Sindhi in Pakistan. Its
dialects are Rabari,
Kachi Bhil, Vagri,
Katai Meghwar,
Zalavaria Koli and
Tharadari Koli.
(Lower Sindh)
170,000 Grimes
around Towns
(in
2000: 594.
of Tando
1998)
Allahyar &
Tando Adam
also in India
around the Rann
of Kach.
Koli
Parkari
Parkari (Lexical
similarity with
Marwari Bhil and
Tharadari) 77-83%
lexical similarity
with Marwari Bhil;
83% with Tharadari
Koli
Lower Thar
Desert
Nagar Parkar.
Also in India.
30,000
Grimes
(in 1980) 2000:
594.
Koli
Wadiyara
(Wadiyara,
Wadhiyara)
intelligibility with
Kachi Koli and its
varieties.
Sindh in an area
bounded by
Hyderabad, Tando
Allahyar and
Mirpur Khas in
the north, and
Matli and
Jamesabad in the
South.
175,000- Grimes
180,000 200: 594.
in
Pakistan)
. Total in
Pakistan
and India
360,000
(1998).
Kundal
Shahi
Neelam Valley,
Azad Kashmir
Lasi
Las Bela District
(south east
Balochistan)
Sindh---various
places
(Lassi) similar to
Sindhi but influenced
by Balochi.
Loarki
82% lexical similarity
with Jogi and 80%
with Marwari.
Marwari (Rajasthani, Meghwar,
Jaiselmer, Marawar,
Marwari Bhil) 7983% lexical similarity
with Dhatki; 87%
between Southern and
Northern Marwari;
78% Marwari Mehwar
and Marwari Bhat.
500 (in
2003)
Baart and
Rehman
2003
15,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000:
594.
25,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000
Northern Marwari 220,000 Grimes
in South Punjab
(in 1998) 2000:
North of Dadu
595.
Nawabshah.
Southern Marwari
in Tando
Mohammad Khan
and Tando
Ghulam Ali etc.
Memoni
Similarities to
Sindhi and Gujrati
Karachi
Unknown Grimes
2000:
595.
Od
(Odki) similarity
with Marathi with
some Gujrati
features. Also
influenced by
Marwari and
Punjabi 70-78%
lexical similarity
with Marwari,
Dhatki and Bagri.
Scattered in Sindh 50,000
& south Punjab
(in 1998)
Grimes
2000:
595.
Ormuri
(Buraki, Bargista)
25-33% lexical
similarity with
Pashto.
Kaniguram
3000?
(south Waziristan)
some in
Afghanistan
SSNP-4:
54
Grimes
2000:
595.
Persian
(Farsi, Madaglashti
Persian in Chitral
Dari, Tajik,
Badakhshi and the
dialects mentioned
earlier). Dialects of
Persian spoken in
Pakistan. The
standard variety is
used for writing.
Balochistan,
Shishikoh Valley
in Chitral, Quetta,
Peshawar, etc.
2000SSNP-5:
3000
11
(in 1992) Grimes
2000:
591.
Phalura
(Dangarik, Ashreti,
Tangiri, Palula,
Biyori, Phalulo) 5658% lexical
similarity with Savi;
38-42% with Shina
7 villages near
Drosh, Chitral
possibly 1 village
in Dir Kohistan
8600
SSNP-5:
(in 1990) 11;
Grimes
2000:
596.
Sansi
(Bhilki) 71% lexical North-western
similarity with
Sindh
Urdu; 83% with
Sochi.
10,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000: 596
Shina
(Sina, Shinaki,
Brokpa)
Giligit, Kohistan,
Baltistan and
Ladakh
Sindhi
Bhil
(Bhil) close to
Badin, Matli,
Sindhi. Its varieties Thatta (Sindh)
are Mohrano, Sindhi
Meghwar, Badin
etc.
Torwali
(Kohistani, Bahrain
Kohistani) 44%
lexical similarity
with Kalkoti and
Kalami.
500,000
SSNP-2:
93;
Grimes
2000:
596.
50,000
Grimes
(in 1998) 2000: 597
Chail and Bahrain 60,000
(Swat)
Breton
1997:
200;
Lunsford
2001;
Grimes
2000:
597.
Ushojo
(Ushoji) 35-50%
lexical similarity
with varieties of
Shina.
Upper part of
Bishigram Valley
(Chail) in Swat
Vaghri
(Vaghri Koli) 78%
Sindh many
lexical similarity
places. Also in
with Wadiyara Koli. India.
90,000 in Grimes
India.
2000:
10,000 in 597.
Pakistan.
(in 1998)
Wakhi
(Kheek, Kheekwar,
Wakhani, Wakhigi,
Wakhan) some
influence of
Burushaski.
9,000
SSNP-2:
plus
61;
(in 1992) Grimes
2000:
597.
Northern ends of
Hunza & Chitral
1000
Zaman
(in 2002) 2002;
Grimes
2000:
597.
Wanetsi
(Tarino, Chalgari,
Wanechi) 71-75%
lexical similarity
with Southern
Pashto.
Harnai
(East of Quetta)
Yidgha
(Yidghah,
Upper Lutkoh
Luthuhwar) 56-80% Valley
lexical similarity
(Western Chitral)
with Munji in
Afghanistan. Also
influenced by
Khowar.
95,000
SSNP-4:
(in 1998) 51 Breton
1997: 200
Grimes
2000: 598
5000SSNP-5:
6000
11
(in 1991) Grimes
2000:
598.
STATE OF THE LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN
Language
Material available
Names of
writers of
primers.
Material in standard Persian may be used.
Many
primers
Alphabet book, primers, folktales, health
books, phrase book Balochi-Urdu-English
dictionary, printed books on Islamic
observances, poetry, modern literature,
textbooks etc.
Ancient records (Devanagari based script);
Grammar, parables (Roman); verse,
folksongs etc (Nastaliq script)
Tan et. al.
1999; Farrell
1986;
Aer
Badeshi
Bagri
Balochi
Balti
Bateri
Hussanabadi
1990
Bhat
Bhaya
Bhil Sindhi
Material in Sindhi may be used.
Brahvi
Alphabet book, primers, folktales, health
books, phrase book; Brahvi-Urdu-English
dictionary, printed books on Islamic
observances, poetry, modern literature,
textbooks etc.
Transition primer (Urdu to Burushaski),
Nasir n.d
folktales, bilingual vocabulary: BurushaskiEnglish
Burushaski
Many
primers.
Many
primers.
Chilisso
Dameli
Dehwari
Dhatki
Alphabet book, primer, transition primer,
folktales, stories for children.
Das et. al.
1991; Payne
1991; various
1991
Domaaki
Gawarbati
Ghera
Goaria
Gowro
Gujari
Poetry books, short stories, songs etc.
Many
primers.
Gujrati
Primers, grammars, textbooks, books etc.
(in India also in computers).
Many
primers.
Alphabet book, folktales, health books,
proverbs, stories for children. Material in
standard Persian may also be used.
Primers, literature, prose, dictionaries,
magazines etc.
HLA 1997
Gurgula
Hazargi
Hindko
Jandavra
Akbar 1994
and other
primers.
Jatki
Primers, word lists, grammars.
Naskh/Nastaliq
Baloch 2003
Primers of Sindhi may be used
Many
primers
Kalami
Alphabet book, transition primer, poetry
books, collection of texts from Gawri
writers’ workshop, proverbs, phrase
dictionary Gawri-Urdu-English
KCS 2002;
Sagar 2002a;
Sagar 2002b;
Shaheen
1989
Kalasha
Alphabet book, pre-reader, dictionary.
Akbar 1994
Jogi
Kabutra
Kachchi
Kachchi
(Bhil)
Kachchi
(Katiawari)
Kalkoti
Kamviri
Kashmiri
Primers, folktales, poetry, textbooks, other
books etc. (most of this literature is in
India).
Many
primers.
Khojki
Ancient records, Ginans, old documents,
primers, school textbooks, others books.
Ali 1989.
Khowar
Primers, grammar, dictionary, folktales,
Faizi 1987
poetry, religious books, other popular books.
Kativiri
Khetrani
Kohistani
(Indus)
Koli
(Tharadari)
Koli (Kachi)
Alphabet books, folktales, health books,
stories for children, primer.
Koli (Parkari) Alphabet book, primer, folktales, health
books, bilingual vocabulary: ParkariEnglish, stories for children.
Koli
(Wadiyara)
Kundal Shahi
Lasi
Loarki
Marwari
Memoni
Primers of Sindhi may be used
Od
Ormuri
Primer, grammar, word list [Roman] verse,
prose, grammar, word list Ormuri (Pashto
script)
Masih and
Woodland
1995.
Hoyle 1996;
Hoyle, R
1990; Hoyle,
R & Samson
1985; Hoyle,
R et. al. 1990.
Many
primers
Barki 1999
Pashto
Persian
All kinds of textbooks and books; usable in Many
computer. (also used in Afghanistan in some primers.
domains of power).
All kinds of books (usable in computer).
Many
primers.
Phalura
Punjabi
Sansi
Shina
Sindhi
Sindhi Bhil
Books on literature; history; textbooks etc in Many
Nastaliq script. (All kinds of books in the
primers.
Gurmukhi script in India).
Poetry, grammar, word lists, folktales,
songs, religious books etc.
All types of books and in the computers.
Taj 1999; Zia
1986; Namus
1961;
Kohistani and
Schmidt 1996
Many
primers.
Siraiki
Ancient poetry, modern literature,
magazines etc.
Mughal 1987
and other
primers.
Torwali
Lexicographic work using Nastaliq is in
progress.
Bashir 2002;
Kareemi
1982
Urdu
All types of books and computers.
Many
primers.
Vaghri
Wakhi
Primer, word list, folksongs, proverbs, word Sakhi 2000
lists.
Wanetsi
Primer, songs, folktales, word lists Nastaliq
(Pashto variant)
Yidgha
Ancient poetry, modern literature,
magazines etc.
Askar 1972
DOMAINS OF USE AND VITALITY OF THE
LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN
Language Domains of Use
Vitality
Source
Aer
Used in all functions
within the group.
Worship songs in
Gujrati
Women monolingual. Men
multilingual, generally in
Sindhi. No evidence of
language shift but shift
possible to Sindhi as
children go to school.
Jeffery
1999
Badeshi
Not known
Language shift to Pashto
Zaman
2002
Bagri
Used in all functions All multilingual mostly in
within the group.
Sindhi. No evidence of
Used in weddings; to language shift.
tell Jokes; in songs.
Jeffery
1999
Balti
Used in all functions
within the group.
Used by teachers as
informal medium of
instruction for small
children if they are
MT
speakers
themselves.
Also
cultivated
by
language
activists,
media persons (radio
announcers etc).
Some bilingualism in Urdu Backstrom
especially
among
the in SSNP-2
educated and the employed. 1992
Positive attitude to MT.
Desirous of learning to read
their language. No evidence
of language shift.
Bhat
Not known
All multilingual mostly in
Marwari.
Jeffery
1999
Bhil
Sindhi
Used in traditional
ceremonies and
worship.
Bilingualism in Sindhi.
Jeffery
1999
Bateri
Bhaya
Burushaski
Used in all
Some multilingualism in
functions within the Pashto and Urdu
group.
especially among the
educated and those who
travel on business. Positive
attitude towards MT. No
evidence of language shift.
Not known
Shifting to Sindhi and
related to Marwari
dialects.
Hallberg in
SSNP-1
1992.
Used in all
functions within the
group. Used by
teachers as informal
medium of
instruction. Also
cultivated by
language activists,
media persons etc.
Backstrom
in SSNP-2
1992
Increasing bilingualism in
Urdu and English
however, the language is
being maintained desirous
of learning Urdu and
English but expressing
positive feelings for MT.
Grimes
2000: 590
and Personal
information.
Chilisso
Many speakers do
not use the language
even at home.
Bilingualism in Shina.
Language shift to Shina in
progress. People want their
children to learn Shina and
Urdu.
Hallberg in
SSNP-1
1992.
Dameli
Spoken by older
people at home but
younger people use
other languages also.
Multilingualism in Pashto
and Khowar. However,
positive attitude to MT is
expressed. Possibility of
language shift to Pashto.
Decker in
SSNP-5
1992.
Dehwari
Not known
Influenced by Brahvi
Grimes
2000: 590.
Dhatki
Used by the Malhi
Multilingualism in many
group for all
languages.
functions. Urdu and
Sindhi used for songs
Jeffrey
1999.
Domaaki Possibly used by very
Language shift to
Backstrom
few elderly people with Burushaki is complete with in SSNP-2
each other. Most people no hope of reversal.
1992
do not know it.
GawarBati
Used for all functions
within the group.
Multilingualism in Pashto Decker in
and to a lesser extent in
SSNP-5
Khowar. Positive attitude to 1992
MT. However, the language
is under pressure by
Pashto.
Ghera
Used for all functions
within the group.
Multilingualism in Sindhi
Jeffrey
and Urdu.
1999
Getting influenced by both.
Goaria
Used for all functions
within the group. Hindi
used in worship.
Children use Sindhi and
Urdu.
Multilingualism in many
languages. Children use
Sindhi or Urdu with
outsiders.
Jeffery
1999
Gowro
Gujari
Still spoken by the
older people but
younger people mix
it with Shina and
sometimes speak
only Shina.
Used in some
communities but not
among in Gujars
settled in the Punjab
and Azad Kashmir.
Language activists
are creating literature
in the language.
Songs, music and
other things are
broadcast from the
radio and there is a
TV programme from
India.
Bilingualism in Shina.
Language shift to Shina in
progress.
Hallberg in
SSNP-1
1992;
Zaman
2004
Multilingualism in many
languages and especially
Urdu among the educated.
In the NWFP, Northern
areas and parts of Azad
Kashmir the language is
maintained. In the Punjab
and near Muzaffarabad and
Mirpur there is language
shift to the local languages.
Educated people use Urdu.
Hallberg
and O’
Leary in
SSNP-3
1992
Gujrati
Used for
conversation within
the family but
younger people are
switching to Urdu or
English (depending
on socio-economic
class). All kinds of
literature exists. Used
in the media and in
the state of Gujrat in
India.
Multilingualism in Urdu and Field
English as well as other
research in
languages. Language shift to Karachi.
Urdu and English is in
progress at least in Pakistan.
Gurgula
Language used
within community is
strong.
Multilingual in many
language.
Hazargi
Used in the group for Multilingualism with
all functions.
Pashto, Balochi and Persian.
Language is under pressure.
Jeffery
1999
Jatki
Not known
Not known
-
Jandavra
Private.
People proud of their
language.
Jeffery
1999
Jogi
Used in the group
for all functions.
Women slightly bilingual in
Sindhi. Men preficent in
Sindhi.
Jeffery
1999
Kabutra
Used in the group
for all functions.
Multilingual in many
languages. Positive attitude
and pride in language. No
shift.
Jeffery
1999
Kachchi
(Bhil)
Used in the group
for all functions.
Bilingualism in Sindhi.
Being rural it is maintained
at presest shift to Sindhi
going on.
Jeffery
1999
Shift to Sindhi going on.
Jeffery
1999
Kachchi
Used by older
(Katiawari) people in some
domains.
Koli Kachi Used for all functions Multilingualism in Sindhi
within the group.
but language being
maintained.
Koli
Parkari
Used for all functions Multilingualism in Sindhi
within the group.
but language being
maintained.
Koli
Wadiyara
Used for all functions Multilingualism in Sindhi
within the group.
but language being
maintained.
Used for all functions Men Multilingual in many
within the group.
languages. Women and
children maintain the
language
Used for all functions Widespread bilingualism in
within the group.
Pashto. Educated people
also know Urdu. Attitude
towards MT positive and no
language shift is observed.
Koli
Tharadari
Kalami
Grainger
&
Grainger
1980: 42
Grainger
&
Grainger
1980: 42
Jeffery
1999
Jeffery
1999
Rensch in
SSNP-1
1992
Kalasha
Used for all functions Positive attitude to MT but Decker in
within the group.
those who convert to Islam SSNP-5
shift to Khowar or the
1992.
language of the spouse.
Some multilingualism in
Khowar and Urdu because
of tourism and education.
The language is under
pressure and there is a
possibility of language shift.
Kalkoti
-
Kalami used is a second
language. Most people also
speak Pashto.
Grimes
2000: 593.
Kamviri
Used for all function
within the group.
Multilingualism in Pashto
and surrounding languages.
Positive attitude to MT but
under pressure by Pashto.
Decker in
SSNP-5
1992.
Kashmiri
Small diaspora in
Pakistan but used for
all function within
the Valley of
Kashmir held by
India. All kinds of
literature available.
Used in media and in
teaching etc. Also
taught at university
level.
Multilingualism with Urdu
and the local languages.
Language shift in progress
in Pakistan but is
maintained in India.
Kativiri
Used in all functions
within the group.
Positive attitude towards the Decker in
MT but men multilingual in SSNP-5
Pashto and surrounding
1992.
languages. Difficult to
predict language shift.
Khetrani
Aziz 1983;
Bukhari
2000.
Khowar
Kohistani
(Indus)
Used in all domains
in the group. Used by
teachers as informal
medium of
instruction for small
children if they are
MT speakers
themselves. Also
cultivated by
language activists,
media persons (radio,
TV announcers etc).
Used for all functions
within the group.
Some bilingualism in
Pashto, local languages and
Urdu, the last especially
among the educated and the
employed. Positive attitude
to MT. Desirous of learning
to read their language. No
language shift observed.
Decker in
SSNP-5
1992.
Multilingualism in Pashto
Hallberg in
and Shina is not common
SSNP-1
even among them. Positive 1992.
attitude towards MT. People
want it as a medium of
instruction for small
children. No language shift
is observed.
Koli
(Kachi)
Probably used in the
group
Bilingualism in Sindhi.
Jeffrey
1999;
Grimes
2000: 594.
Koli
Parkari
Not known
Bilingualism in Sindhi but
language being maintained.
Grimes
2000: 594.
Kundal
Shahi
Used only by the
elderly in the family.
No longer used by
children.
Language shift to local
language and Urdu in
progress.
Baart and
Abdurehm
an 2003.
Lasi
Not known
Not known
-
Loarki
Used for all functions Multilingualism in Sindhi
within the Loar
and some knowledge of
group
Urdu.
Marwari
Used in all domains
(Southern) of the group.
Multilingualism in Sindhi.
Jeffery
1999
Memoni Probably used by
older speakers in the
group as spoken
language.
Most speakers are educated
and multilingual in Sindhi,
Urdu and Gujrati. The
language is shifting to these
three languages.
Grimes
2000: 595.
Od
Used in some Od
communities while
others use local
languages.
Multilingualism in
Grainger &
surrounding languages.
Grainger
Language shift in progress in 1980: 31
this iterant community.
Ormuri
Used for most
functions in the
Kaniguram area.
Words of Pashto are
common among
young people.
Bilingualism with Pashto.
Though positive attitude to
MT is expressed, language
shift to Pashto is visible.
Hallberg in
SSNP-4
1992: Barki
PC 2000.
Persian
Used for speaking in
different groups.
Standard Persian is used if
written.
Personal
observation.
Phalura
Used at home. Used
informally by teachers.
Multilingualism in Khowar,
Pashto and Urdu. Language
shift to Khowar in evidence.
However, ethnic Kalasha have
shifted to Phalura in some
areas. Vitality picture mixed.
Decker in
SSNP-5
1992.
Rabari
Used in all domains of
the group.
Being maintained.
Jeffery
1999
Sansi
Used for worship and
weddings.
Multilingualism in Sindhi and
slightly in Urdu and Siraiki.
No language shift observed.
Jeffery
1999
Shina
Used in all domains in
the group. Used by
teachers as informal
medium of instruction for
small children if they are
MT speakers themselves.
Also cultivated by
language activists, media
persons (radio
announcers etc).
Considerable bilingualism in
Urdu especially among the
educated and the employed.
Positive attitude to MT.
Ambivalent about learning to
read their language. No
language shift observed.
However, there is pressure of
Urdu.
Backstro
m in
SSNP-2
1992
Sochi
Used in singing,
weddings and telling
stories.
Multilingualism in Sindhi
and slightly in Urdu.
Jeffery
1999
Torwali
Not known
Men bilingual in Pashto but
language being maintained.
Grimes
2000: 597
Ushojo
(Ushuji)
Used at home at least
by the older speakers.
There is much
mixing of Pashto.
Multilingualism in Pashto
and Torwali but educated
people know Urdu. Young
people who know the MT
use Pashto in some areas.
Language is under threat
from Pashto. Language
vitality is varied and mixed.
Decker in
SSNP-1
1992
Vaghri
Used in private
domains.
Bilingualism in Sindhi.
Positive attitude to the
language in spite of
pressures.
Jeffery
1999
Wakhi
Used in all domains
of the group.
Language activists
and radio
broadcasters also
cultivate it.
Bilingualism with Urdu
Backstrom
among younger, educated
in SSNP-2
people. Also knowledge of 1992
Burushaski. Positive attitude
towards MT. Desirous of
learning the written
language in school.
However, the language is
under pressure from Urdu.
Wanetsi
(Waneci)
Used in private
domains but those
who live in cities do
not use it.
Bilingualism with Pashto.
Positive attitude towards
MT. However, under
pressure from Pashto.
Yidgha
Used for in group
functions. Used
informally by
teachers and for
explaining religious
texts.
Multilingualism in Khowar Decker in
and sometimes Urdu,
SSNP-5
Persian and Bashgali.
1992.
Language shift to Khowar in
evidence.
Hallberg in
SSNP-4
1992.
Askar n.d.