C
H
A
P
T
E
R
Topics Covered in Chapter 10

Strategic Conflict Management
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The Role of Public Relations in Managing Conflict
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It Depends: A System for Managing Conflict
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It Depends: Two Basic Principles

The Conflict Management Life Cycle
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Processes for managing the Life Cycle

Issues Management

Issues Management and the Bottled-Water Industry

Strategic Positioning and Risk Communication

Crisis Management

Reputation Management
What is Crisis?

Crisis - Accident
What is Crisis?

Crisis - Polluted Environment
《财富》500强公关调查结果
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
60
50
40
30
20
10
危机不可避免 严重危机挑战
0
潜伏危机
爆发危机
巨能钙双氧水事件
“消费者当心、
巨能钙有毒”
保健品市场
冰山一角
Definition（危机定义）

危及组织利益、形象、生存的突发性
或灾难性的事故与事件

Any situation that is threatening or
could threaten to harm people or
property, seriously interrupt business,
damage reputation and/or negatively
impact share value.
冲突的含义
冲突乃有关双方在观念和行
为上的对立或对抗，是一种在满
足各自需要的过程中遇到挫折、
阻力、或力图超越现状时的心理
紧张和压力及其外部表现 。
个人内心的冲突
冲突的层次之一
个人间的冲突
冲突的层次之二
合作博弈
甲的选择 乙的选择 甲的结局
乙的结局
承认
承认
判6年监禁
判6年监禁
承认
否认
判1年监禁
判10年监禁
否认
承认
判10年监禁
判1年监禁
否认
否认
判3年监禁
判3年监禁
群体内部的冲突
冲突的层次之三
群体间的冲突
冲突的层次之四
部门间的冲突
冲突的层次之五
国家间的冲突
最高层次的冲突
冲突的硬根源
冲突根源于冲突各方利益追
求的多样化且趋向无限大，但社
会或组织所能供给的资源却十分
有限。
所以，冲突是无所不在的。
冲突的软根源——观念
背景，经历
背景，经历
对话语的理解
解
个体
情感反应
对某些人的偏见
对话语的理
工作场所
个体
情感反应
对某些人的偏见
怎样看待危机




不可避免，但可预警。
危机，时机？
面对危机，恐惧？寻求保护？正视危机，
转危为机。
加强企业的自身管理，提高危机管理的能
力
危机的特征







突发性
破坏性
不可预见性
紧迫性
挑战性
情绪失控性
舆论关注性
企业重大危机的类型







经济方面（劳动力、股价、市场）
信息方面（商业机密）
物质因素方面（设备、原材料）
人力资源方面
声誉方面（诽谤、谣言、企业标志）
行为方面（产品伤害、恐怖事件）
自然灾害方面
危机的类型

内部来源危机
• 经营危机
• 管理危机
• 法律危机
• 素质危机
• 关系危机

外部来源危机
• 自然灾害
• 人为破坏
• 宏观环境变化
• 技术发展
• 公众误解
经典案例：35次紧急电话

从“笑脸背后的真面目”到“35次紧急电
话”

危机常常处于不稳定的状态，关键是如何
使其向好的方向发展。
危机发生的原因






企业内部环境原因
缺乏危机管理意识
组织决策违背公众利益
公关意识淡薄
没有正常有序的传播渠道
自身素质低下、管理缺乏规范、法制观念
淡薄
危机发生的原因



企业外部环境原因
意外灾难性事件、企业恶性竞争、舆论负
面报道、社会公众误解
公众自我保护
危机形成和发展的四个阶段




危机爆发前（避免）
危机爆发初（遏制）
危机爆发中（阻止）
危机爆发后（消除）
Strategic Conflict Management
A public relations professional must develop
communication strategies and processes to
influence the course of conflicts to the benefit of
the organization and, when possible, to the
benefit of the organization’s many constituents.
When a public relations professionals influences
the course of a conflict and ultimately the crisis
itself, it is called strategic conflict management.
Strategic Conflict Management cont.
The components of strategic conflict management are:
 Strategic: For the purpose of achieving particular
objectives
 Management: Planned, deliberate action
 Competition: Striving for the same object,
position, prize, as others
 Conflict: Sharp disagreements or opposition
resulting in a direct, overt threat of attack from
another entity.
Strategic Conflict Management cont.
Competition, a pervasive condition in life, occurs
when two or more groups or organizations vie for the
same resources.
Conflict occurs when two groups direct their efforts
against each other, devising actions and
communication that directly or verbally attack the
other group.
The distinction between competition and conflict is
partly a matter of degree, but also a matter of focus.
The Role…Managing Conflict
Conflict management often occurs when a business
or industry contends with government regulators or
activist groups that seem determined to curtail
operations through what the industry considers
excessive safety or environmental standards.
At the same time, both the regulatory body and the
activists engage in their own public relations efforts
to make their case against the company.
The Role…Managing Conflict
Sometimes, an organization is able to catch a conflict
at an early stage and reduce damage to the
organization. However, in other cases, an issue may
smolder and finally become a major fire.
Unfortunately, most conflict situations are not clearcut in terms of an ideal solution.
Public relations professionals have to make tough
calls and advocate strictly on behalf of their
organization.
It Depends…Managing Conflict
A public relations professional or team must
determine the stance its organization will take toward
each public or stakeholder involved in the conflict
situation.
Stance then determines strategy—what will be done
and why.
The stance-driven approach is based on virtually all
practitioners sharing an unstated, informal approach
to managing conflict and competition: “It depends.”
It Depends…Managing Conflict cont.
The stance taken toward publics “depends” on many
factors, which cause the stance to change in
response to changing circumstances.
The outstanding practitioner monitors for threats,
assesses them, arrives at a stance for the
organization, and then begins communication efforts
from that stance.
The “threat appraisal” model notes that a threat to an
organization requires an assessment of the demands
it makes on the organization and what resources are
available to deal with the threat.
It Depends…Managing Conflict cont.
The Threat Appraisal Model
It Depends: Two… Principles
Two important principles are important within the
threat appraisal model.
The first principle is that many factors determine the
stance or position of an organization when it comes
to dealing with conflict and perceived threats.
The second principle is that the public relations
stance for dealing with a particular audience or public
is can change as events unfold.
These two principles form the basis of what is called
contingency Theory.
It Depends: Two… Principles cont.
The public relations approach chosen is contingent
on the many factors that professionals must take
into account when assessing a threat.
The five external variables were identified as:
(1) External threats
(2) Industry-specific environment
(3) General political/social environment
(4) External public characteristics
(5) The issue under consideration.
It Depends: Two… Principles cont.
The six internal variables were:
(1) General corporate/organizational characteristics
(2) Characteristics of the Public Relation department
(3) Top management characteristics
(4) Internal threats
(5) Personality characteristics of internal, involved
persons
(6) Relationship characteristics
It Depends: Two… Principles cont.
Most practitioners reported the major influence of
individual level variables on public relations practice
and adopting an organizational stance.
Contingency variables noted by the practitioners were:
(1) Individual communication competency
(2) Personal ethical values
(3) Ability to handle complex problems
(4) Ability to recognize potential or existing problems
(5) Familiarity with external publics or its representatives
It Depends: Two… Principles cont.
The values and attitudes of top management or dominant
coalition influence how the organization responds to
conflict and threats.
Variables affecting the stance of an organization Include:
(1) Top management support of public relations
(2) PR department communication competency
(3) Public relations representation in top management
(4) Top management’s frequency of external contact
(5) PR department’s perception of external environment
(6) Department funding
(7) Organization’s experience with the public
It Depends: Two… Principles cont.
The attitudes of top management and the judgment of
public relations professionals are factors that may
move the organization toward or away from
accommodation of a public.
The range of response can be shown on a continuum
from pure advocacy to pure accommodation.
The key point about the continuum is that it identifies
the stance of an organization toward a given public
at a given time.
It also shows the dynamism of strategic conflict
management.
The Conflict Management Life Cycle
Another way of understand the entire conflict
management process is to depict it as a life cycle for
a problem or issue that professionals must track.
The Conflict Management Life Cycle shows the “big
picture” of how to manage a conflict and the
numerous techniques that public relations people
use to deal with conflict.
Persistent issues still present at the end of the cycle
require that the process begin all over again on the
left side of the cycle.
The Conflict Management Life Cycle cont.
Processes for Managing the Life Cycle
Conflict management is challenging, but not impossible.
The following systematic processes provide guidance
and structure for this highly rewarding role played by
public relations professionals in managing
competition and conflict:




Issues management
Risk communications
Crisis management
Reputation management
危机形成和发展的四个阶段




危机爆发前（避免）
危机爆发初（遏制）
危机爆发中（阻止）
危机爆发后（消除）
为什么要实行危机管理和沟通


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
使危机尽量少发生
能够有条不紊地处理危机
使危机造成的危害减少到最底程度
迅速恢复企业形象，恢复正常运作
迅速恢复与外界的正常关系
始终保持内部的稳定
危机管理的基本原则




道德原则：首先考虑公众和消费者的利益，
保持与社会同等的道德水准。
预警原则：把危机消灭在萌芽阶段。
处理原则：甄别事实、深度分析、快速反
应、果断决策、控制局面、加强沟通、维
护形象。
恢复原则：转危为机、重塑形象、客观评
估、总结经验、引以为戒。
危机沟通管理的基本方法



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
危机管理模型
危机反应计划
危机管理组织的建立及职责
危机管理策略与实施
沟通管理、媒体管理、形象管理、恢复管
理
缩减
风险评估
管理
预警
预备
培训
演习
影响分析
反应
计划
技能要求
审计
恢复
危机管理模型
影响分析
计划
技能要求
审计
危机管理策略与实施


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
快速反应，争取主动
坚持伦理，寻找时机
强调一贯，形象效应
转危为机，化险为夷
迅速恢复，取信于民
沟通管理


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
信息控制
正式沟通与非正式沟通
情感与沟通
沟通时机控制
沟通技巧
媒体管理




成也媒体，败也媒体
与媒体保持良好的关系
应对媒体的技能：采访、新闻发布、新闻
报道、媒体会议、
新闻发布人
形象管理





与危机前的态度和行为保持一致
反映组织的真实态度和行为
注意处理外部焦点
危机过后保持当前态度
道德比利益更重要
恢复管理

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
制定恢复计划
评估损失
筹措资金，尽快恢复业务
加强沟通，恢复信心
形象恢复，维持和重建对外关系
危机管理与沟通
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危机的界定与识别（冲突与危机）
危机的主要诱因
危机管理中沟通难点分析
危机管理中的沟通政策与沟通机制的建立
危机管理过程中的不同阶段的特点与沟通
策略及方法
危机后的沟通



步骤1：与受危机影响的各方进行沟通（止血）
步骤2：保持运营状态（造血）
步骤3：制定计划以避免危机重来（愈合）
危机沟通中的障碍
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缺乏危机沟通意识（三株高峰80亿跌倒；）
封闭式组织文化（欧典80人员工留下20铁杆）
缺乏预警系统（欧典之前有投诉）
不善倾听（矿难）
提供虚假信息（蝴蝶效应）
缺乏应变能力（事后出丑；孙英杰误服兴奋
剂）
危机沟通的策略

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

加强培训（耐挫性培训；基金经理；保险
公司；防火）
建立危机预警系统
诚信至上（蝴蝶效应）
面对困难不逃跑的坚持
创建开放式组织文化（开放的沟通方式 ）
危机沟通策略

1.
2.
3W
What did we know（我们知道了什么）
When did we know about it（我们什么时候
知道的）
3.
What did we do about it （我们对此做了什
么）
危机沟通策略

1.
2.
3.
4.
4R
Regret (遗憾)
Reform (改革)
Restitution(赔偿)
Recovery(恢复)
危机沟通策略

危机管理8F原则：
Forecast（事先预测）原则；
Fast（迅速反应）原则；
Fact（尊重事实）原则；
Face（承担责任）原则；
Frank（坦诚沟通）原则；
Flexible（灵活变通）原则

Feedback(反馈)

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媒体沟通3T原则



Tell your own tale
Tell it all
Tell it fast
Basic rules for communication with the media

“3T” principle：
Tell your own tale
Tell it all
Tell it fast
Crisis Communication
Responding to the media in the immediate
aftermath of the crisis
Never answer questions immediately
unless you need to win time
充分的信息（Tell it all）
The qualifications for a spokesperson

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

realize situation
humanitarianism
be practical and realistic
keep self-possession
a good television image
a good media relations
Basic rules for communication with the media
Always try to include precise, factual
information in your answers rather than vague,
general statements. For example, “The last
safety training course or safety audit took
place on….” Is better than, “We are always very
careful about safety…”
Give brief, accurate answers to questions. Use
clear and concise language. Avoid business
jargon at all times.
Basic rules for communication with the media
Always try to give a positive slant to your
answers by avoiding negative sentences (e.g.
stress what is going to be done rather than
what has not been done).
Inform the media of all positive actions
implemented both during and after the crisis
situation.
Basic rules for communication with the media
Public and Journalists’ favorite questions，
Speak only of proven facts and never speculate
responsibilities, causes, prevention ……
Basic rules for communication with the media
In the event of physical injury or a fatality,
the crisis committee’s prime concern is to
provide support to the injured and the families
of any victims.
与媒体沟通的方法

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

制定沟通政策
预做准备
与新闻记者建立良好关系
妥善应答
掌握好时间
非语言沟通
保持控制
危机沟通“十要”

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
十要：
让领袖出面
作出快速反应
接受坏消息
用同一个声音说话
言行一致
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
充分利用现代通讯
频繁沟通
广泛进行公关
准备就绪，严阵以待
及时作出反馈
危机沟通 “十忌”

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
十忌
采取“鸵鸟政策”
在危机公开后才着手处理
对未知的事实进行推测
粉饰事实真相
自以为是
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
视媒体为敌人
漠视公众
一味作书面声明
重复老套
没有让员工积极参与
Crisis Management
Often when strategic positioning and risk management
strategies do meet the needs of an organization,
crisis management takes over.
The conflict management process involves ongoing
issues management and risk communication efforts.
It is used and severely tested in crisis situations in
which a high degree of uncertainty exists.
A crisis situation puts a great deal of pressure on
organizations to respond with accurate, complete
information as quickly as possible.
Crisis Management cont.
A crisis is a major occurrence with a potentially
negative outcome affecting the organization,
company, or industry, as well as its publics, products,
services, or good name.
Often, management tends to minimize or deny there’s a
crisis.
However, there is a crisis if the organization’s
stakeholders community leaders perceive the
situation to be a crisis.
Crisis Management cont.
The following is list of crisis communication strategies
that an organization may use:







Attack the accuser
Denial
Excuse
Justification
Ingratiation
Corrective action
Full apology
Issues Management…Water Industry
Issues and situations can be managed or even
forestalled by public relations professionals before
they become crises or before their conflictual nature
leads to significant losses for the organization.
Issues encountered in the bottle-water industry and
subsequent innovations are communicated to the
public via public relations, advertising, and marketing
in the hope that consumers will give the industry
credit for being “green” and also continue to drink
bottled water.
Strategic Positioning and Risk Comm
Strategic positioning is any verbal or written exchange
that attempts to communicate information that
positions the organization favorably regarding
competition or an anticipated conflict.
The idea is to communicate not only the position
amongst competition and conflict but to influence the
actual behavior of the organization favorably.
Strategic Positioning…Risk Comm cont.
A public relations professional can engage in
communication that may reduce risk for affected
publics and for his or her employer.
The risk may be naturally occurring or associated with a
product.
Risk communication can minimize adverse effects on
publics, but it also often reduces risk—of lawsuits, of
damaged morale in the organization, and of
diminished reputation—to the organization itself.
Crisis Management
预防（prevent）、处理（dispose）、
善后（resolve）、重建（rebuild）
Crisis Strategic Management



（fire fighting，deal with）
（fireproofing，prevent）
（strategic management）
Conclusion：

Attitude

Crisis Management strategy

Honesty
危机管理的组织落实
一、危机管理组织架构的设置
 三级组织三级管理



危机管理委员会
危机管理办公室
危机管理工作小组
危机管理的组织落实
二、发言人制度的确立— 一个声音一个观点





极强的沟通协调和应变能力
负责发布真实信息
从容面对媒体和公众
有理有利有节驾驭场面，以人格魅力影响公众
体现良好组织形象
加强危机管理的意义

加强危机管理是“四高”组织的必修课





高知名度
高成长性
高品牌排行
高管制
加强危机管理可以降低组织的隐性成本
危机管理其他制度保证

“发言人”制度
“一个声音、一个观点”

内部应急反应机制
畅通、首尾相接、快速反馈
成封闭状态的信息系统
危机处理基本程序






深入现场，了解事实
分析情况，确立对策
安抚受众，缓和对抗
联络媒介，主导舆论
多方沟通，加速化解
有效行动，转危为机
Reputation Management
Reputation is defined as the collective representation
of an organization’s past performance that describes
the firm’s ability to deliver valued outcomes to multiple
stakeholders.
It is the track record of an organization in the public’s
mind.
Reputation scholars offer three foundations of reputation:
(1) Economic performance
(2) Social responsiveness
(3) Ability to deliver valuable outcomes to stakeholders
Reputation Management cont.
Research techniques called reputation audits can be
used to assess and monitor an organization’s
reputation.
Reputation repair and recovery is a long-term process,
and the fourth phase in the conflict management life
cycle called the recovery phase.
Reputation Management cont.
The five general strategies and sub-strategies for image
restoration are:
1) Denial
 Simple denial: Your organization did not do what it is
accused of.
 Shift the blame: Someone else did it.
2) Evade responsibility
 Provocation: Your organization was provoked.
 Defeasibility: Your organization was unable to avoid
its actions.
 Accident: The bad events were an accident.
 Good intentions: Good intentions went awry.
Reputation Management cont.
3) Reduce offensiveness
 Bolstering: Refer to the organization’s clean record
and good reputation.
 Minimization: Reduce the magnitude of negative
feelings.
 Differentiation: Distinguish the act from other similar,
but more offensive, acts.
 Transcendence: Justify the act by placing it in a more
favorable context.
 Attack the accuser—Reduce the credibility of the
accusations.
 Compensation—Reduce the perceived severity of the
injury.
Reputation Management cont.
4) Corrective action—Ensure the prevention or
correction of the action.
5) Mortification—Offer a profuse apology.