COMP 381
What is ethics?
philosophical study of morality
Investigation of the nature, causes, or
principles of reality, knowledge, or
values, based on logical reasoning
rather than empirical methods.
What is ethics?
philosophical study of morality
rules of conduct describing what people
in a society should and should not do
Society
Association of people
organized
under a system of rules
designed to advance the good of its members
over time
Rawls, A Theory of Justice
What is the common good?

James Moor’s core values
 Life, happiness, ability to accomplish goals

Declaration of Independence
 Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness

John Finnis’s intrinsic goods
 Life, knowledge, play, aesthetic experience,
sociability, religion, practical reasonableness
Ethics
What choices that people make are part
of ethics?
 Must be voluntary
 Must relate to morality
 What is the fundamental purpose of any
moral system?

 To advance the common good

What rules of conduct did you learn
growing up?
Ethical Dilemma
Apparent conflict between moral
imperatives
 New technologies can open up new
social problems and new ethical
dilemmas

 Examples?

Can new technologies change morality?
Studying Ethics

Three Approaches
 Descriptive ethics: what people believe to be
right and wrong
 Normative ethics: what people should
believe is right and wrong
 Philosophical ethics (meta-ethics): looks at
the logic behind the decisions
Relationship between normative and
philosophical ethics?
 Examples where descriptive and
normative ethics differ?

Theories that we will look at

Ethical relativism – very briefly
 Individual (or subjective)
 Cultural

Normative ethical theories
 Deontological (duty-based)
○ Kantianism
○ Contractualism
 Teleological (result-based)
○ Utilitarianism

Hybrid theories
 Social justice
 Just consequentialism
Criteria for Ethical Systems
balance of justice and mercy
 protect individual freedoms and rights

 no individual can/should impede or hurt
another individual
recognizes unethical laws
 flexibility
 dealing with

 relativism
 societal balance
Ethical Relativism
Is there anything universally right or
wrong?
 How is right or wrong decided?

Individual Relativism
Is this the same as tolerance?
 For

 Well-meaning, intelligent people can
disagree

Against
 Does not provide moral distinction.
○ What does morality mean?
 Not based on reason
 People are good at rationalization
Cultural Relativism
Consider Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars work
 For

 Different social contexts
 Arrogance to judge

Are there examples when we should impose views
on a society?
 What if people have the right to leave?

Against
 Evolution of practices
 Societies do share core values
Normative Ethical Theories

Deontological: based on the sense of
duty
 Right because of the act

Teleological: based on the result
 Right because of the result
Deontological Theory

What is it?
 Based on our duties and responsibilities
 Actions are fundamentally right or wrong

Classic Examples
 Kantianism (Kant)
1724-1804
 Contractualism (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau)
1588-1679
1632-1704
1712-1788
Kantianism: Ethics of Duty

Duty as freely imposing obligation on
one’s own self
 Duty is internal
 We impose duty on ourselves

What we SHOULD do, not what we
WANT to do
Kant’s Categorical Imperatives
Universality: “Always act in such a way
that the maxim of your action can be
willed as a universal law of humanity.”
 Respect: “Always treat humanity,
whether in yourself or in other people,
as an end in itself and never as a mere
means.”
 Are these the same? Which do you
prefer?

Strengths of Kantianism
Rational
 Produces universal moral guidelines
 Treats all people as moral equals

Criticisms

Practical
 Actions may need to be characterized by
multiple rules and there is no way to resolve
a conflict between rules
 Allows no exceptions

Philosophical
 Moral minimalism: requirements are not
heartfelt
 Moral alienation: alienated from feelings
Contractualism
Social Contract Theory
 Morality consists in the set of rules,
governing how people are to treat one
another, that rational people will agree to
accept, for their mutual benefit, on the
condition that others follow those rules
as well.

James Rachel, The Elements of Moral Philosophy
Rights and Duties
Duty not to interfere with others rights
 Negative and positive rights

 Negative right: duty is to not interfere
 Positive right: duty is to provide

Absolute and limited rights
 Typically, negative rights are absolute and
positive are limited
Strengths of Contractualism
Framed in terms of rights
 Explains acting out of self-interest when
there is no common agreement
 Provides framework for moral issues
dealing with government (civil
disobedience)

Criticism
Doesn’t address actions that can be
characterized multiple ways
 Doesn’t address conflicting rights

Comparing the Two Theories
Both believe that there are universal
moral rules
 Basis of those moral rules

 Kant
○ can be universalized
○ based on duties
 Contract
○ would benefit the community
○ based on rights
Teleological Theory

What is it?
 Something is good based on its
consequences

Primary example: Utilitarianism
 Jeremy Bentham
1748-1832
 John Stuart Mill
1806-1873
Utilitarianism
Greatest Happiness Principle
 Compute the costs and benefits

 Simple calculation: do positives outweigh
the negatives?

Two forms
 Act – judge the consequence of a specific
act
 Rule – judge the consequence of the
generalized rule
Strengths
Focus on happiness
 Down to earth
 Appeals to many people
 Comprehensive

Problems of Act that Rule Addresses
Too much work to make a decision on
each act
 Susceptible to happenstance

Criticisms
Ignores our sense of duty
 Range of effects that one must consider
 Calculus requires that we balance very
different aspects
 Unjust distribution of good results
