Copyright E. Moyer 2011

“Bio-engines” and some technology make harvesting much more efficient.
27 horsepower!
(or perhaps horse-
+mule-power)
Horse drawn combine, likely 1910s-20s. Source: FSK Agricultural Photographs

Very early a switch was made from vertical to horizontal axes
Pitstone windmill, believed to be the oldest in Britain.
Horizontal-axis waterwheel

What were the needs for mechanical work by mills?
anything besides grinding grain?

Why so many windmills along rivers?
Source unknown
Luyken, 1694

Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…
Dutch drainage mill using Archimedes’ screw from The Dutch Windmill, Frederick Stokhuyzen

Pumping can be done with rotational motion alone…
Bucket chain pumps are seen as early as
700 BC.
Common in ancient
Egypt, Roman empire, China from
1 st century AD,
Medieval Muslim world, Renaissance
Europe.
Chain pumps, including bucket chain pumps (R)
From Cancrinus, via Priester, Michael et al.
“Tools for Mining: Techniques and Processes for Small Scale Mining”

Chain pumps need not involve buckets
Chain pump cutaway
From Lehman’s

…but linear motion allows more efficient pumping
Same technology used today in oil wells
The lift pump
Animation from Scuola Media di Calizzano

Linear motions were needed very early in industrial history
Chinese bellows, 1313 A.D.
European hammer mill w/ cam coupling, 1556 A.D.

The cam converts rotational to linear motion
The noncircularity of the cam creates a push at only one part of the cycle
The knife-edge cam
Animation from the University of Limerick

The cam converts rotational to linear motion
The noncircularity of the cam creates a push at only one part of the cycle
The rocker arm & camshaft
Animation from the University of Limerick

Gears and cams let one wheel drive multiple machines
Gold refining, France. D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert eds,
Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris 1763-1777 & 1783-87.

Machines powered by wind & water include:
Rotational
•Grindstones
•Pumps
•Winches
•Bucket lifts
•Spinning wheels
•Lathes, borers, drilling machines (first use)
Linear (reciprocating)
•Hammer-mills
•Beaters
•Bellows
•Saws
•Looms
Linear (non-reciprocating)
•Boats

Machines powered by wind & water include:
Rotational
•Grindstones
•Pumps
•Winches
•Bucket lifts
•Spinning wheels
•Lathes, borers, drilling machines (first use)
Linear (reciprocating)
•Hammer-mills
•Beaters
•Bellows
•Saws
•Looms
Linear (non-reciprocating)
•Boats

Heating
Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use
Complex chemical transformations driven by heat were common in
Medieval Europe.
Georg Acricola “De res metallica”, Book
XII ( “Manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass” ),
1556 .

Wood and coal fired technologies include
Fuel burnt for
•Heating
•Metallurgy
•Glass-making
•Brewing (drying the malt)
•Baking
•Brick-making
•Salt-making
•Tiles and ceramics
•Sugar refining

Wood and coal fired technologies include
Fuel burnt for
•Heating
•Metallurgy
•Glass-making
•Brewing (drying the malt)
•Baking
•Brick-making
•Salt-making
•Tiles and ceramics
•Sugar refining

Heating
Large-scale wood-burning to make heat for industrial use
Foundries are wood-fired in
1700s and getting large enough to significantly affect the local fuel supply.
Copper foundry, France
D. Diderot & J. Le Rond d`Alembert eds, Encyclopédie méthodique. Paris
1763-1777 & 1783-87.

The energy crisis in Europe: lack of wood
1700s
“When the fuel situation became difficult in France in the eighteenth century, it was said that a single forge used as much wood as a town the size of Chalon-sur-
Marne. Enraged villagers complained of the forges and foundries which devoured the trees of the forests, not even leaving enough for the bakers’ ovens.”
--- F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life, 1979.

1400s
The energy crisis hit Britain first: lack of wood
“Aeneas Sylvius (afterwards Pope Pius II), who visited
Scotland… in the middle of the fifteenth century, mentions …that he saw the poor people who begged at churches going away quite pleased with stones given them for alms. ‘This kind of stone … is burnt instead of wood, of which the country is destitute.”
1600
“Within a few years after the commencement of the seventeenth century the change from wood fuel to coal, for domestic purposes, was general and complete.”
--- R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain,
1882.

The 2 nd British energy crisis: flooding of the mines
1600s “The miners, no less than the smelters, had their difficulties during the seventeenth century, but of a totally different kind; for while the latter were suffering from too little fire, the former were embarrassed by too much water… the exhaustion of he coal supply was considered to be already within sight. In 1610, Sir
George Selby informed Parliament that the coal mines at
Newcastle would not last for the term of their leases of twenty-one years.”
--- R. Galloway, A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain,
1882.

By the 18 th century Europe’s energy crisis limits growth
--- F. Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life

The great 18 th century European energy crisis
Wood was insufficient, & coal was getting hard to extract
Surface “sea coal”  deep-shaft mining below the water table
No way to make motion other than through capturing existing motion or through muscle-power
Water and wind weren’t necessarily near demand

th
All technology involved only two energy conversions
• Mechanical motion  mechanical motion
• Chemical energy  heat
There was no way to convert chemical energy to motion other than muscles (human or animal) – no engine other than flesh
Even for heating, the only means out of the energy crisis was coal – but to mine the coal required motion for pumps.
18 th century Europeans had complex and sophisticated technology, and an abundance of industrial uses for energy, but not enough supply

The revolutionary solution = break the heat  work barrier
Newcomen “Atmospheric Engine”, 1712
(Note that “revolution” followed invention by ~100 years – typical for energy technology)

A device that generates converts thermal energy to mechanical work by exploiting a temperature gradient
• Makes something more ordered: random motions of molecules  ordered motion of entire body
• Makes something less ordered: degrades a temperature gradient (transfers heat from hot to cold)

The two technological leaps of the Industrial Revolution that bring in the modern energy era
1. “Heat to Work”
Chemical energy  mechanical work via mechanical device
Use a temperature gradient to drive motion
Allows use of stored energy in fossil fuels
Late 1700’s: commercial adoption of steam engine
2. Efficient transport of energy: electrification
Mechanical work electrical energy mech. work
Allows central generation of power
Late 1800s: rise of electrical companies

Outline of next three lectures
Having finished with global energy flows and started history of human use, we’ll now do a tricky transition…
History of early steam engines (today)
Fundamental physics of heat engines (Tues Apr. 12 th ) understanding heat  work
History of Industrial Revolution (Tues. 12 th makeup or
..with preview of electric generation Thurs. 14 th )
Organizing framework for energy conversion technology
The modern energy system
And then it’s on to individual energy technologies…

Physics: long understood that steam exerted force
Evaporating water produces high pressure
(Pressure = force x area)
“lebes”: demonstration of lifting power of steam “aeliopile”
Hero of Alexandria, “Treatise on Pneumatics”, 120 BC

Physics: condensing steam can produce suction force
Low pressure in airtight container means air exerts force
Same physics that lets you suck liquid through a straw (or use a suction pump)

First conceptual steam engine
Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design
Set architecture of reciprocating engines through modern day – piston moves up and down through cylinder
Papin nearly invented the internal combustion engine in which the piston is pushed up by high pressure in the cylinder (from expanding air after an explosion of gunpowder).
Unfortunately he couldn’t design the valves correctly to vent air after expansion, and gave up. He then designed an engine in which the piston is pulled down instead by low pressure in the cylinder (provided by condensing steam).
This is deeply unfortunate for beginning students.
Papin’s first design, now in Louvre. No patent, no working model.

First conceptual steam engine
Denis Papin, 1690, publishes design
Papin neither built his engine nor even patented it. He did not have the mechanical skill to actually build his engine successfully. He needed to machine the cylinder and piston air-tight to maintain a pressure gradient, and couldn’t manage that.
He forms part of continuing trend in the history of energy technology: the person who invents a technology is not the person who makes it practical (and yet a third person is the one who makes money off it).
Also: the French explained without building, the British built without explaining.
Papin’s first design, now in Louvre. No patent, no working model.

First commercial use of steam:
“A new Invention for Raiseing of Water and occasioning Motion to all Sorts of
Mill Work by the Impellent Force of Fire which will be of great vse and
Advantage for Drayning Mines, serveing Towns with Water, and for the
Working of all Sorts of Mills where they have not the benefitt of Water nor constant Windes.”
Thomas Savery, patent application filed 1698
(good salesman, but he was wrong – this can only pump water)

First commercial use steam
Thomas Savery, 1698
Essentially a steam-driven vacuum pump, good only for pumping liquids.
Max pumping height: ~30 ft.
(atmospheric pressure)
Efficiency below 0.1%
Some use in Scottish and English mines, to pump out water. Fuel was essentially free. 2000 times less efficient than people or animals, but they can’t eat coal.
Drawbacks – mines were deeper, fire in mines leads to explosions

First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690, with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years

First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690, with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years

First true steam engine:
Thomas Newcomen, 1712, blacksmith
Copy of Papin’s engine of design of 1690, with piston falling as steam cooled, drawn down by the low pressure generated
First reciprocating engine: force transmitted by motion of piston
Can pump water to arbitrary height.
Force only on downstroke of piston
Very low efficiency: 0.5%
Intermittent force transmission
Newcomen’s design is state of the art for 60+ years

First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.)
Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condense
Reduces wasted heat by not requiring heating and cooling entire cylinder

First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 (patent), 1774 (prod.)
Higher efficiency than Newcomen by introducing separate condenser

First modern steam engine:
James Watt, 1769 patent
(1774 production model)
Like Newcomen engine only with separate condenser
Higher efficiency: 2%
Force only on downstroke of piston
Intermittent force transmission
No rotational motion

Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator

Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator – don’t need electronics for controls sun and planet gearing
Gearing lets the linear-motion engine produce rotation, mimic a water wheel

Improved Watt steam engine:
James Watt, 1783 model
Albion Mill, London
Separate condenser
Higher efficiency: ca. 3%
Force on both up- and downstroke
Continuous force transmission
Rotational motion
(sun and planet gearing)
Engine speed regulator – don’t need electronics for controls!
engine speed governor
No need for electronics for controls – can use mechanical system

Double-action steam engine:
Why use suction to pull the piston down – why not just push it down with another injection of steam?
Piston pushed by steam on both up- and down-stroke.
No more need for a condenser.
Steam is simply vented at high temperature slide valve alternates input & exhaust

Double-action steam engine: slide valve alternates input & exhaust

What are benefits?
What are drawbacks?
What would you use one for?

What are benefits?
Faster cycle – no need to wait for condensation. Can get more power, higher rate of doing mechanical work.
Also lighter and smaller – no need to carry a condenser around.
What are drawbacks?
Inefficiency – venting hot steam means you are wasting energy.
High water usage – since lose steam, have to keep replacing the water

Double-action steam engine: primary use: transportation

Double-action steam engine: water-intensive, fuel-intensive – requires many stops to take on water and fuel.
Images top, left: Sandia Software
Image bottom: Ivan S. Abrams

An alternate design choice with different tradeoff:
Triple-expansion steam engine:
Adds two more cylinders to get more out of the steam before condensing it.
Benefits:
More efficient – conserves fuel
Conserves water
Drawbacks
Large, heavy if high power primary use: steamships
(because they can’t refuel, and weight is not a problem)

History of locomotives
Trevithick’s first “railway engine”, 1804 (no image)
Used for hauling coal – replaces horses. Speed: 5 mph
“Puffing Billy”, William Hedley, 1813
Coal hauler
9” x 36” cylinders
First locomotives are basically steam engines for the pumps now placed on wheels
Image: source unknown

History of locomotives
Stephenson’s “Rocket”, 1820
First passenger locomotive
29 mph (unloaded), 14 mph loaded
Image: source unknown

History of locomotives
Central Pacific Railroad locomotive #173, Type 4-4-0, 1864
(Common American design, 1850s-1900)
Image: Central Pacific Railroad
Photographic History Museum

History of locomotives
Northern Pacific Railway steam locomotive #2681, 1930
Image: Buckbee Mears Company, Photograph Collection ca. 1930, Location no. HE6.1N p11, Negative no. 25337. Source: Minnesota Historical Society