Science and Technology Policy in
India: Ethics, Institutions and Policy
Frameworks
Sachin Chaturvedi
GEST Project Workshop, Preston
15th March 2012
Outline
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India: S&T Policy and Focus on Ethics
Historical Context for S&T Policy in India
Drivers of S&T Policy
Public Perception Analysis
Ethics and Policy Focus
Institutional Architecture
Way Forward in the Project Study
India: S&T Policy and Focus on Ethics
Key Focus: Equity/ Inclusion/ Access
* We propose to use them to assess the S&T policies, new
technologies and outcomes instead of using ‘universal’ values
* Access means access to S&T, fruits of S&T and access to
information
* Inclusion means inclusion of all sections of society as
beneficiaries and meeting their needs so that they enjoy fruits
of S&T and also benefit as citizens, consumer
* Equity means equitable distribution and sharing of fruits of
S&T and directing S&T to facilitate this
Equity/ Inclusion/ Access
• Part of Social conflict
• Direction, pace, nature of products: Source of Injustice
• What if all good words are there: Poverty, Global disparities,
justice etc.
• What different types of inequalities?
• Unequal outcomes are measured with ideas of access,
affordability, distributive justice etc. but no focus on the nature
of R&D priorities themselves
• Growing role of Private sector.
Equity/ Inclusion/ Access
Sen’s idea of Equality (Inequality Reexamined)
• Why Equality and What Equality?
• ‘Equality is judged by comparing some particular aspect of a
person (such as income, or wealth, or happiness, or
opportunities, or rights, or need-fulfilments) with the same
aspect of another person.’
• The inherent diversity of human beings means that treating
them equally with respect to one such ‘focal variable’ may lead
to considerable inequalities in other dimensions.
• Then how do we approach this in our project! What examples
are there where S&T is used to reduce inequality?
• European theory of Social Cohesion (Communitarian S&T
Policy)
Historical Context for S&T Policy in India
• Importance of S&T was recognized during the colonial rule
itself.
• Indigenous efforts for modern science
• Harnessing S&T for development in Independent India was a
cherished objective.
• Support of thinkers, industrialists, scientists and freedom
fighters
• Two camps on development approach came up one with rapid
industrialization, massive projects like dams and
modernization of all sectors in industry (Nehru) and the other
with local industry and agriculture (Gandhi)
Historical Context for S&T Policy in India
• At stake was the issue of values and institutional mechanisms
than use/non use of S&T
• Coupled with Five Year Plans the government launched a
series of measures to
Strengthen existing S&T infrastructure IITs etc.
Establish new ones and developed CSIR as a national
body for applied research
Thrust on higher education in S&T, engineering,
agriculture and medicine
Linked them with nation building and transformation of
industry, agriculture and society
TPS and Drivers for S&T Policy
• Science and Technology Policy Statements (STPS) are the policy tools for
the Government of India for stating technology policy objectives and
approaches.
• Since Independence, three TPS have been issued in 1958, 1983 and 2003.
• The 1958 statement was called as Science Policy Statement (SPS) while
that of 1983 as Technology Policy Statement (TPS) and that of 2003 as
Science and Technology Policy Statement (STPS).
• The 2003 document has acknowledged the importance of linking up
modern technology with indigenous knowledge base.
• Three major concerns which drove specific S&T policies in India were:
Science for National Development and Security; Self Reliance and
Building ‘Scientific Temper’
Key Drivers
• Equalisation With Progress And Development
• Science for Basic Needs (TPS 1983 in terms of food, water,
housing, health and education)
• Science for national security: (nuclear and atomic energy
received high priority but India refused to divert any portion of
her atomic resources for the preparation of atomic bombs)
• Science and Self-Reliance – Policy of Non-alignment and
dependence on imports for food pushed towards enhancing
national capacity to be self-sufficient in key sectors. Policy of
import substitution.
Indian Constitution: Scientific Temper
• Under Article 51A(h) developing scientific temper is one of the
fundamental duties of a citizen of the country.
• Fundamental duties are of voluntary in nature and cannot be
enforced by law or through courts as obligations of the citizens
towards state or society.
• The Directive Principles are more like wish lists indicated by
framers of the Constitution who gave importance to economic
freedom and social freedom of the citizens of the country.
• Although the Principles are silent about science it can be inferred
that the objectives of S&T policy cannot go against them and
should facilitate realizing the objectives mentioned in the
Principles.
• For example since the Principles give importance to the betterment
of conditions of women and children, it can be construed that S&T
policies framed with this objective in mind are desirable.
Public Perception Analysis
• Science popularization in India had a long history while
organizations/movements at the interface of science and society
were formed only in the late 1960s.
• Public opposition to the projects such as Silent Valley Project.
was also articulated by them
• Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) a pioneering peoples’
science movement got established in 1962
• Activist groups and similar movements came together in 1985
and identified issues of common concern and interest - resulted
in the formation of All India Peoples Science Network (AIPSN).
• Later National Level Action Plan known as ‘Jan Vigyan Jatha’
was chalked out.
Public Perception Analysis
• Around three themes: Science for the People, Science for the
Nation and Science for Discovery. (Bharath Jan Vignyan Jatha
1986)
• Linguistic, ethnic and religious diversity in India complicates
understanding the Publics’
• Understanding of Science is complicated further by wide
disparities in literacy, access to information, and other variations
in the human development indicators.
• Radio and Television were under state control for many years
and only in the last 15 years private sector has made rapid strides
in this.
• Agricultural programs were given exclusive slots in the
government controlled media.
Public Perception Analysis : NISTADS Survey
• NISTADS with AIPSN undertook surveys on- Public Attitudes and
Understanding of Science (PAUS), for study of interface between
science, technology and society
• Focus on four areas of knowledge: Cosmology, Health and
Hygiene, Geography and Climate and Agriculture.
• Based on questionnaire interviews were conducted in Magaolpuri,
Delhi (1991), Ardh-Kumbh, Allahabad (1995), and Nepal (1996).
• The results of these surveys have not been consolidated and
presented in a single publication.
Public Perception Analysis : India Science Report
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The Indian National Science Academy
commissioned a study to National Council of
Economic Research (NCAER) to produce India
Report (2003-2004) for understanding public
towards science through a primary survey.
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A questionnaire based survey was done. The sample size
was very limited and there has been no subsequent studies
based on this questionnaire.
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This survey is an interesting attempt to map perception on
science and technology. But it had not been taken up further
nor had been repeated in the later years. So it is difficult to
extrapolate its findings, nor correlate this with any other
study.
(INSA)
Applied
Science
attitude
India Science Report: Results
• TV constitutes the leading source of information, followed by
radio and television enjoys the credibility and confidence of
about 75% of the participants, and the illiterate have the least
confidence in this medium.
• Indians perceive science and technology of great utility and
77% of the participants felt that S&T made lives easier and
healthier but positive perception towards mechanization is low.
But more than 60% consider that new technology makes work
more interesting.
• Hence it can be inferred that public resistance to science and
technology would not be high unless the public had a negative
perception about that technology.
Public Perception Analysis : Survey of Scientists
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A survey of Indian scientists (i.e.1100 PhD holders) was conducted in 2007-2008
on Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists, by Institute for the Study of
Secularism in Society and Culture, Trinity College, U.S.A.
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The participants were from 130 institutions including IITs at Kanpur, Khargpur,
Madras and Bombay and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
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Findings:
1.
In their view scientists were well respected in India and they thought that scientific literacy in
India was low.
2.
64% of the participants stated that they would refuse to work on
development of biological weapons, while 54% took the same stand on
nuclear weapons.
Those who opposed genetic engineering and stem cell research were less
than 10%.
Most of them (59%) considered themselves to be secular, 50% thought that
homeopathy was efficacious.
In the absence of studies on perceptions of scientists this study is a welcome
addition to the literature.
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5.
Public Perception Analysis : Survey of Scientists
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But this study’s approach is limited and many of the questions are directed
towards their perceptions on science and religion and their self-perceptions on
science and religion.
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Hence this does not tell us much about their views on policy, public
understanding of science.
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The full results have not been made public and this makes its utility limited to
what one can understand from the summary.
Perception Survey on GM Crops
• GM foods have not been approved in India, hence there has not been
any study on the consumer acceptance of GM foods.
• An experimental study done by Sangeetha Bansal et.al.(2012) on
Economic Consequences of Labeling Genetically Modified Foods In
India, showed, that while consumers are willing to pay a premium of
13% for non-GM foods only 50% were averse to GM foods.
• Problems: In the absence of surveys and studies on public perception and
understanding of science in India it is difficult to understand the values
that shape publics response to science and technology.
• Way forward: Doing such studies in a country with so many diversities is
a daunting task, the time has come to take initiatives in this. India is
planning to increase its spending on S&T significantly in the coming years,
the need for surveys and studies on public understanding of science is
obvious.
Ethics and Policy Focus
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The economic development policies adopted in India had a major bearing on S&T
strategy and on the strategies for agricultural and industrial sub-sectors.
The historic Science Policy Resolution of 1958 embodied trust in science for the
crucial role of an instrument for social and economic change
The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) took initiative to link-up social and national
priorities with various S&T initiatives. Under the Sixth Five Year Plan a Cabinet
Committee on Science and Technology (CCST) was constituted on 3rd March 1981
under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister to provide policy guidance in all
matters relating to S&T.
A Science Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SACC) was re-constituted in
March, 1981; Member (Science) in the Planning Commission is Chairman of
SACC, to ensure appropriate linkages with the Planning Commission.
SACC recommended for a National Biotechnology Board (NBTB), which was
established in 1982 as an inter-ministerial coordinating agency, to accelerate the
pace of development in the frontier and emerging areas of biotechnology. This area
was seen as of great relevance for agriculture, medicine and industry.
Budgetary Allocation for Science and
Society Programme
Ethics and Policy Focus
• Under Science and Society Programme specific schemes were initiated with a
view to benefit young scientists.
• Gender specific programmes, Science and Technology Application for Weaker
Sections (STAWS) and Technology Transfer for Tribal Development (TTTD)
were also initiated with projects for reducing their drudgery of work in the rural
areas. In this respect the Science and Technology Application for Rural
Development (STARD) is a major scheme.
• The Science and Society Programme also identified role for voluntary agencies
in the field of S&T for generating and demonstrating technologies to increase
productivity in the professions of weaker sections of the society, for example in
pottery, tanning and agriculture related activities.
• Planning Commission Seminar on New Technologies held in 1986 helped in
evolving a new mechanism called Science and Technology Advisory Committee
(STAC), which placed DST in a nodal role for promoting S&T through various
line Ministries.
• The STAC mechanism covers 24 socio-economic ministries.
• In 2003, a Inter-Sectoral Science and Technology Advisory Committee (ISSTAC) was set up to provide a forum for the Member Secretaries of STACs,
other scientists and technologists to share the expertise and experience and
provide additional tools in decision making processes vis-à-vis socio-economic
development
Ethics and Policy Focus
• DST formed a new consolidated programme
‘Science for Equity,
Empowerment and Development (SEED)’ for providing technology solutions
for challenges in rural and urban areas for the disadvantaged sections of the
society.
• SEED emphasises on linking advance national laboratories with local S&T labs
for encouraging interaction and initiatives for solving local challenges.
• As a part of SEED programme, grant in aid projects are given to the grass root
organisations particularly the ones working for improving quality of life of
artisans, landless labour, women and other disadvantaged sections particularly
in rural areas. In this, their skills are upgraded and they are linked with
advanced laboratories on site solutions.
• In the Eleventh Five year plan (2007-12) there was great emphasis on faster and
more inclusive growth.
• The Twelfth Plan (2012-17) also emphasises on faster, sustainable and more
inclusive growth. It aims to generate resources for financing social sector
programmes aimed at reducing poverty and enabling inclusiveness.
• The government launched a special Scheme titled “Innovation in Science
Pursuit for Inspired Research” (INSPIRE) as an effort to attract students to
pursue S&T .
• As a part of INSPIRE, one million young students would be supported across
various states and they would be encouraged for spending time with Science
icons at Summer Camps
Institutional Architecture
Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC)
• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) issued a “Policy Statement on
Ethical issues involving humans in biomedical research” in 1980 which suggested all
institutions involved in clinical research should set up an institutional ethics
committee and elaborated on the structure and function of these committees.
• The Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) under the Drugs and Cosmetic Act
1964 issued the GCP guidelines for establishment of institutional ethics committees
in 2001.
• Hence, several institutions came up with institutional ethics committees for clinical
trials. There is a proposal now for mandatory registration of institutional ethics
committees.
Central Ethics Committee on Human Research (CECHR)
• ICMR is leading India’s research programme through its Central Ethics Committee
on Human Research (CECHR), which was established in 1996.
• There is a proposed bill before the Indian Parliament for establishing Biomedical
Research Authority (BRA) for providing overarching framework in the area of
biomedical research. This is part of the Biomedical Research on Human Subjects
(Promotion and Regulation) Bill, 2006.
• The proposed bill would imply renaming of CECHR as the National Ethics
Committee (NEC) with the
Institutional Architecture
• The ICMR had initially evolved and implemented ‘Ethical
Guidelines on Research Involving Human Subjects’ in 1980,
which was revised in 2000 and later in 2006, which is eventually
taking the form of the bill to be placed before the Parliament.
• The amendments in the guidelines tried to respond to the fast
changing technological context and evolving business
partnerships and ethical concerns in this area.
National Bioethics Committee
• The Department of Biotechnology of Government of India
established a National Bioethics Committee (NBC) in 1999.
The Committee in 2003 recommended that no reproductive
cloning shall be permitted, however, in view of the potential
utility of therapeutic cloning the same can be approved on the
merit of each case.
Institutional Architecture
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of
Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
• CPCSEA was established with the Ministry of Environment and
Forest for regulating experiments on animals, under Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals act of 1960.
• The Breeding and Experiments on Animals (Control and
Supervision) rules were notified in 1998, with amendments in
2001 and then in 2005.
The CPCSEA also requires registration of IAEC for carrying out
experiments on small animals.
• There are 1600 registered IAECs in India.
Institutional Architecture
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on
Animals (CPCSEA)
• Under the Breeding and Experiments on Animals rules, the concerned
institution is required to constitute Institutional Animal Ethics Committee
(IAEC) and get it registered with CPCSEA, get their animal house
inspected and also set their specific projects for research cleared by IAEC
and CPCSEA for large animals etc.
• The CPCSEA also requires registration of IAEC for carrying out
experiments on small animals.
• There are 1600 registered IAECs in India.
• It works with the mandate to ensure that person duly qualified in animal
science under his/her responsibility should be performing the experiment.
• The experiments on larger animals are avoided when it is possible to
achieve the same results by experiments upon small laboratory animals like
guinea-'pigs, rabbits, mice, rats etc.
Institutional Architecture
National Apex Committee for Stem Cell Research and Therapy
• The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Indian Council of Medical
Research (ICMR) evolved the Stem Cell Research and Therapy
guidelines in 2007.
• The SCRT guidelines defined ethical principles for derivation, propagation,
differentiation, characterization, banking and for use of human stem cell for
research and therapy.
• The guidelines proposed to establish a National Apex Committee for Stem
Cell Research and Therapy (NAC-SCRT) for review and monitoring
various research initiatives.
Civil Society Organizations
Independent
Committee (IndEC)
Ethics
•The mandatory requirement
from the DGCI -in clinical trials In Expansion phase
•Providing
independent
guidance, advice and support
to non-institutional researcher,
individuals
and
smaller
organisations with limited
resources and infrastructure.
•Ensures the protection of the
rights, safety and well being of
human subjects involved in a
research project and to provide
public assurance of that
protection.
•Developed its own standard
operating procedure (SOP)
describing the terms of
reference
which
provide
framework for constitution and
establishment of IndECs across
the country.
Indian Society for Clinical
Research (ISCR), Mumbai
•Different pharmaceutical
industries to promote
clinical research and lay
down standards for ethical
clinical trials.
•Conducting
training
programmes, bringing out
relevant documents in
collaboration with other
agencies and recognizing
the
merit
of
well
performing scientists in the
field of clinical research.
Society for Promotion of
Ethical
Clinical
Trials
(SPECT), New Delhi
•Promoting ethical clinical
trials in India. The SPECT
proposes to establish an
independent Ethics Review
Board (ERB) for reviewing
clinical research protocols
for scientific and ethical
standpoints.
•Conducts
lectures,
conferences
and
workshops for creating
awareness
on
issues
related
to
clinical
research.,
supports
infrastructure
development
for
facilitating
clinical
operation activities.
Centre for Studies in Ethics
and Rights, Mumbai
•leading work in the areas
of ethics and rights.
•Establishes collaborative
multi-disciplinary in India
and abroad working in the
area of bioethics.
•Established
a
MultiInstitutional
Ethics
Committee that reviews all
research activities as per
the standard operating
protocol.
•Undertakes
detailed
monitoring and evaluation
of
various
health
programmes with focus on
clinical ethics.
•Capacity building across
agencies working on health
research.
Forum for Ethics Review
Committees
•in collaboration with ICMR
and as the Indian chapter
of the Forum for ethics
review committees in Asia
Pacific region (FERCAP)
•Bring together members of
Institutional
ethics
committees to discuss the
common problems and to
develop SOPs, training
modules,
accreditation
mechanisms etc .
•The
first
national
conference of FERCI was
held in Nov. 2011 at
Mumbai with a huge
participation
of
the
interested members who
are concerned with the
emerging ethical issues in
S&T and medical research
and discuss the various
aspects
of
access,
affordability, equity and
accountability.
Way Forward
• We have taken a broader approach towards the idea of ethics
and have also included programmes focused at access,
inclusion and equity (AIE).
• Idea of inclusion for instance, is a multi-dimensional concept
so are the others viz. access and equity.
• Depending upon data availability and selection of S&T
indicators a better understanding of socio-economic impact of
S&T policies may be undertaken as a part of the GEST project.
• S&T indicators relate to S&T manpower, R&D expenditure,
patents, publications, which are generally used for
international comparisons among different countries.
Way Forward
• Discussion with the respective ministries/departments on the
need for undertaking studies of public understanding of
science and understanding/perception about new technologies
will also be helpful.
• Studies on regulation of nanotechnology in India, ethical
issues raised by it and the perception of scientists on
Nanotechnology in India can be conducted.
• The current projects’ outcomes in terms of products and
services can be tentatively assessed in terms of their
implications for access, equity and inclusion.
• The Indian experience with ethics committees and guidelines
can be studied in detail.