Switzerland and CERN:
a History of Fifty years
Maurice Bourquin
In the following presentation I would like to share with you some
of the events, which have led to the creation of CERN. I will
mention some key individuals, both scientists and science
administrators, who have played a major role in this process. I will
mention some fears and some hopes, which have been raised
about the installation of the laboratory in Switzerland.
1
The creation of a new organism, whether an individual or an
institution, follows a series of phases:
The initial idea, the conception, the birth,
and the development.
I will try to identify these phases in the case of CERN
2
The initial idea
is rather difficult to pinpoint precisely. One generally mentions the
European Conference on Culture organized in December 1949 in
Lausanne, where Denis de Rougemont, the famous Swiss writer,
was very active. After meeting with Albert Einstein in March 1947 in
Princeton, Denis de Rougemont was convinced that one should link
the ideas of European union and of mastering nuclear energy:
‘deux choses à ce moment-là aussi frappantes par leur
nouveauté que par leur mutuelle utilité.’
3
Raoul Dautry (who then was working with Joliot-Curie at the
Commissariat français à l’énergie atomique) has been quoted during
the Lausanne Conference saying:
que les états européens unissent leurs efforts! Il est
temps de réaliser une institution européenne dans le
domaine de l’énergétique. Je veux dire pour être plus
précis dans celui de l’infiniment grand, source de l’énergie
cosmique, et dans celui de l’infiniment petit, source de
l’énergie atomique’.
He was thus proposing the creation of an atomic physics and
astrophysics laboratory.
Dautry also read a message from Louis de Broglie, the creator of
wave mechanics, in favor of European cooperation in scientific
matters.
4
These ideas of international scientific collaboration, still on a very
general level, had been discussed since 1946 during various meetings
among physicists, especially nuclear physicists as E. Amaldi, I. Rabi,
L. Kowarski, and P. Auger. I can imagine they were certainly
aware of the discussions on Science being held in parallel in the USA,
discussions which led to what has been called ‘the post-war roots of
the U.S. Science System.’
In 1945, a professor named Bush, Vannevar Bush, President’s
Roosevelt top science advisor, published The Endless Frontier. I
cannot resist quoting two short extracts, as they correspond to
considerations debated even today in Europe and in Switzerland. I
expect that our secretary of state, Charles Kleiber, is also supporting
them.
5
Vannevar Bush, The Endless Frontier:
“We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a
source of fundamental knowledge.
In the past we have devoted much of our best efforts
to the application of such knowledge, which has been
discovered abroad. In the future we must pay
increased attention to discovering this knowledge for
ourselves particularly since the scientific applications
of the future will be more than ever dependent upon
such basic knowledge.“
“The most important ways in which the Government can
promote industrial research are to increase the flow of
new scientific knowledge through support of basic
research, and to aid in the development of scientific
talent.“
6
These ideas led to the development of the US national funding
agencies such as the National Science Foundation and started a
process of co-evolution of funding processes and research intensive
university capability, so that US basic research (and the knowledge
transfer from it) is now largely conducted in its universities, and
strategic and applied research by government and industry.
However, no matter how useful these discussions were on a possible
European laboratory for physics and astrophysics, concrete actions
needed an official framework to reach the public authorities and have
them engage in such an enterprise.
The occasion was given by the intervention of the Centre Européen
de la Culture headed by Denis de Rougemont. The CEC, from 1950
on, was entrusted in the discussion on the choice of the domain to be
developed and on how to recruit volunteers to carry the action.
7
The profile of CERN was taking shape: its program, the construction
of a 10 GeV accelerator, located in Europe. On the Swiss side one
should recognize the efforts of two individuals, which played the role
of ‘scientific statesmen’, P. Scherrer and P. Preiswerk.
It was decided that UNESCO would call on government
representatives to study with them financing the plan and establishing
international conventions. The role of UNESCO was, in short, to carry
the project discussed in Lausanne (1949), in a further meeting in
Geneva (CEC, 1950), and in many other places, to the level of
intergovernmental negotiations.
Thus, Switzerland played an important role in the idea of CERN and
UNESCO became its godmother.
8
The conception
In December 1951 and February 1952, two sessions of a conference
sponsored by UNESCO were held in Paris and Geneva, the result of which
was the creation of a Council of European representatives for studying
plans for an international laboratory and the organization of other forms
of cooperation in nuclear research.
The Conseiller d’Etat from Geneva Albert Picot and the physicist from
ETHZ Paul Scherrer, the two delegates from the Swiss Confederation,
already indicated at this moment that Switzerland could be designated as
seat of the laboratory.
9
10
In January 1952, the Tribune de Genève had presented the arguments
in favor of Geneva: important scientific heritage, available electric
power, highly specialized manpower, small country, neutrality ensuring
that the research would be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.
11
On October 4 of the same year 1952, the Council, meeting in
Amsterdam, chose Geneva among 4 candidate cities
According to A. Picot, the technical offers (quality of ground,
availability of water and electricity) were the same for all four
12
(Arnhem, Geneva, Copenhagen, Paris).
Geneva was chosen because of ‘de l’intérêt qu’elle avait manifesté pour la
physique en construisant dès 1944 un très vaste Institut de cette
science’
Indeed, four days later, took place the official inauguration of the new
building of the Physics Institute of the University of Geneva.
13
Furthermore, Geneva was described as a pleasant place to live, with
numerous educational resources for the children of scientists and the
advantage of already having many foreign communities. Clearly the
weight of the various political alliances between the large European
nations in this post-war period in Europe also played a significant role.
The choice of a Swiss site would remove all doubts about the intention
of the organization to pursue only scientific work.
However, within Geneva itself, there was no such consensus: Part of
the population, following the arguments of the communist party,
expressed various dangers, which the installation of the laboratory
would present (dangerous fumes, risk of bombardment in the event of
a new war, threat to the Swiss neutrality).
14
When in December 1952, Albert Picot presents the project to the
parliament of Geneva, the left-wing rejects it vehemently, claiming
‘l’inféodation
du futur organisme
puissances du Pacte Atlantique’.
scientifique
aux
It is in vain that the representative of the Conseil d’Etat explains that,
on the contrary :
‘c’est pour se libérer de l’influence de l’Amérique que les
savants d’Europe ont décidé de mettre leurs efforts en
commun’.
15
The
communist
party
gathers enough signatures
to present a popular
initiative forbidding the
installation
of
any
international
institution
conducting
atomic
or
nuclear
research
in
Geneva.
16
Surprisingly, to me at least, this initiative was supported by
personalities such as William Rappard, who was against a movement
of European concentration. I recall that Professor Rappard was, until
1955, director of the now notorious Graduate Institute of International
Studies in Geneva and representative of Switzerland in many
diplomatic missions. He was also opposed to the establishment of the
European Coal and Steel Community and to the Council of Europe.
17
Before the date set for the
popular vote (on June 28 and
29, 1953), a very hard
campaign
took
place
in
Geneva, where scientists went
into the street. Fortunately for
CERN and Switzerland the
initiative was repelled.
18
And two days later, on July
1st
1953,
the
Swiss
delegation to a session of
CERN Council in Paris was
able to sign the Convention
for the establishment of
CERN. It still had to be
ratified by the 12 countries
signing
19
Let me quote from a 1954 conference of Albert Picot, a jurist, where
he acknowledges the human aspects revealed by atomic energy.
a) Les dangers évidents de cette physique révélés à
Hiroshima, à Nagasaki et à Bikini ;
b) Les perspectives économiques magnifiques de la
découverte de nouvelles sources d’énergie pour
remplacer le charbon, le pétrole et l’électricité;
c) Les problèmes passionnants posés à l’esprit
humain par l’évolution de la science depuis 60 ans
(Roentgen 1895).
We should acknowledge his vision and work toward a Switzerland of
the future, betting on progress of the human mind and in the
evolution of society, rather than being too nostalgic about a past
society or lost privileges.
20
Even before the Convention was ratified and before CERN was
officially born, a small staff of physicists and engineers operated in
semi-independent subgroups spread in several countries.
In October 1953, it was possible for the whole Proton Synchrotron
Project group (Hine, Adams, Citron, Schnell, etc) to move to Geneva
in the Institute of Physics. Laboratories and shop facilities were made
available and furnished offices were placed at their disposal.
21
22
23
At the end of the same month an international conference was
organized at the Institute. It was entitled: ‘the Theory and Design of
an Alternating-Gradient Proton Synchrotron’. The Project Group
explained that the previous year the goal was to design a machine
similar to the one at Brookhaven in the USA, but with a somewhat
larger energy of 10 GeV.
However, as a team of American scientists had just introduced them to
a revolutionary concept, the alternating-gradient principle, their
working program had changed drastically. They now envisaged a 30
GeV machine, having a smaller aperture and smaller magnets, but
keeping the same budget.
This certainly required boldness and courage, but was a very good
decision. This machine was built and is still in operation today.
24
Birth of CERN
The year 1954 witnessed the birth of CERN, whose 50th
anniversary we are celebrating this year. On May 17, the
construction of the buildings started on the Meyrin site.
By September 29, the CERN Convention had been ratified by nine
states, including Switzerland.
By early 1957, when staff and labs moved to Meyrin, good
progress had been made on designing the PS. With one incident
perhaps, in February 1956, when the ‘rade de Genève’, froze up –
the last time this occurred during the 20th century – and so did
the heating pipes in the temporary barracks that had been
erected next to the Institute to house additional collaborators.
25
26
Development of CERN
Since this period, Switzerland has not been sorry for its decision to
offer a safe haven for CERN and CERN has followed a harmonious
course.
We can ask, fifty years later, what links have been woven between
the Organization and Switzerland, and also what happened to the
hopes and fears that had been put forward by the partisans and
the opponents to the installation of the laboratory in the canton of
Geneva.
On the links firsts. It is clear that since the ratification of the
Convention in 1954, the good relations between CERN and
Switzerland have been strong and numerous.
27
Many experimental and theoretical physics groups from Swiss
universities and ETH have participated to scientific projects at CERN.
This has naturally enhanced the quality of education of many research
students.
Swiss scientists have contributed to the publication of hundreds of
scientific and technical papers in international journals. CERN has
greatly contributed to inverse the flux of Swiss scientists toward the
USA (my case for example!).
The setting up of high performance computer networks in Switzerland
would not have been realized so early without the close collaboration
with CERN.
The proximity of CERN has been of great benefit to the private sector.
There has been years, when the industrial return to Switzerland
amounted to nine times its financial contribution! Not to mention the
transfer of knowledge developed at CERN to many Swiss firms.
28
Switzerland and the canton of Geneva, on their side, have strongly
supported the activities of CERN.
For example, there has been a continuous presence to the Council of
the Organization of high level government representatives ( the
conseillers d’états from Geneva A. Picot, A. de Senarclens, A.
Chavanne, J. Vernet et Ph. Joye and presently our Secretary of state
Charles Kleiber). Special financial contributions have been granted to
new projects, recently to the colliders LEP and LHC, as well as to the
neutrino beam directed to the Gran Sasso laboratory.
The SNF should also be commended for its continuous support to
many projects at CERN, although I share now with many colleagues
their worries about the present lower level of investment of the SNF in
this field.
29
Mais les relations du CERN
avec sa région ne se limitent
pas à la Suisse, elles
englobent également la France
voisine, surtout depuis que le
CERN s’est étendu en 1965 au
territoire du pays de Gex
voisin pour permettre la
construction des ISR, puis du
SPS. Cette dualité territoriale
est d’ailleurs unique au monde
et le CERN fait office de
précurseur
en
matière
juridique et commerciale.
30
L’impact du CERN sur la région avoisinante franco-suisse a de
multiples facettes. C’est un facteur de la dynamique économique par
la masse salariale et les commandes importantes qui y sont passées
chaque année, et aussi par le terrain d’expérimentation privilégié qu’il
offre pour certains groupes industriels installés dans la région. C’est
un facteur de développement social par le capital humain qu’il met à
disposition de nombreux organismes locaux de formation
professionnelle, universitaire et grand public. Et aussi par
l’implantation d’une population importante et de haut niveau
d’éducation. Le caractère fondamental et non secret de la recherche
contribue à créer un climat particulièrement propice aux échanges.
On the hopes and fears now. The threats invoked by the opponents to
CERN have not materialized. Obviously CERN does not deal with
nuclear power and does not have to worry about the issues of nuclear
safety. Nevertheless thanks to the rigorous measures taken at CERN,
the impact of the CERN installations on environment has remained
small. There has been no pollution or radiological event dangerous to
the population.
31
Rather than threatening the neutrality of Switzerland, CERN has
contributed to develop ‘l’Esprit de Genève’, in the scientific domain
as well. Thanks to the international status granted by the host
countries, there is no restriction of access to CERN. This is an
enormous advantage in the development of science. We recognize
this fact very acutely these days, when at present so many
scientists are not obtaining visas to participate in scientific projects
and meetings in the USA.
In spite of the difficulties to maintain scientific collaborations with
countries in political confrontations with each other, CERN was
during the cold war one of the rare meeting points between East
and West. More recently, new collaboration agreements have been
signed with, for example, India and Pakistan. CERN remains, as in
the process of its creation, an international organization capable of
diminishing through scientific collaboration the gap between world
powers.
32
Since half a century, CERN users have come from more and more
different parts of the world
33
Swiss scientists have had the great opportunity to collaborate
with them, while essentially staying at home!
They have used a succession of accelerators and colliders at
CERN of higher and higher energies. In the beginning, in the
50’s, the goal was mainly to understand the intimate structure
of the nuclei of the atoms and the forces that keep them from
falling apart, which is studying nuclear physics. But machine
after machine, the collision energy between accelerated
particles has increased, recreating, during very short times and
in a very confined space, the conditions of temperature and
pressure that existed a fraction of a second after the big-bang,
the event, which saw the birth of the Universe. Thus the
physicists have also undertaken to study the history of the
Cosmos.
34
The last ten years or so, we
are observing the birth of a
new branch of science, a
symbiosis between particle
physics, astrophysics and
cosmology.
Using
the
technology
of
particle
detectors
developed
for
accelerator experiments at
CERN
and
elsewhere,
physicists are preparing to
detect particles accelerated
by cosmic phenomena, a
complementary search for
anti-matter, dark matter and
high
energy
astrophysics
objects. CERN is providing the
home base for such exciting
projects as the Pierre Auger
Laboratory in Argentina or the
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
on the ISS.
35
Ladies and Gentlemen, in the late 1940’s high energy physics had not
yet emerged as a field distinct from nuclear research linked to
immediate industrial or defense applications. Please notice the wisdom
of the CERN forefathers, who defined its mission in the 50-year old
CERN Convention, still in effect today, that
The Organization shall ‘confine its activities … for research
on high-energy particles, including work in the field of
cosmic rays’.
In the beginning of the 21st century, when our knowledge of our
Universe is still very limited, these domains of research have still the
greatest potential for our cultural development in Switzerland, in
Europe and in the world.
36