WOMEN AND
SPORTS,
1870-1920
OVERVIEW
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GENERAL TRENDS
ATHLETIC & SOCIAL CLUBS
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
“THE ATHLETIC GIRL”
THE BICYCLE REVOLUTION
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL
BERENSON RULES
SPORTS AND GENDER DEBATE
GENERAL TRENDS
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IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY AMERICAN WOMEN
DEVELOPED SOME VENUES TO PARTICIPATE IN ORGANIZED PHYSICAL
ACTIVITIES AND COMPETITIVE SPORTS, DESPITE AN ENORMOUS
RESISTANCE AND CRITICISM FROM RELIGIOUS, MEDICAL, SCHOOL AND
CIVIC AUTHORITIES.
GIVEN THE PREVALENT ASSOCIATION BETWEEN COMPETITIVE SPORTS
AND MASCULINITY FEATURES, THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN SPECIFIC
PHYSICAL CONTESTS WAS SEVERELY LIMITED, IF NOT ALTOGETHER
PROHIBITED.
SPORTS WERE PERCEIVED AS DANGEROUS ACTIVITIES FOR THE FEMALE
BODY, PARTICULARLY THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, SND AS THREATENING
BEHAVIOUR FOR “FEMININE” PROPER BEHAVIOUR.
ACCORDING TO THE PREVALENT VIEWS OF THE TIME, IN GENERAL WOMEN
SHOULD NOT PRACTICE SPORTS..
GENERAL TRENDS
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THE ASSOCIATIONBETWEEN SPORTS AND MANLINESS
REPRESENTED A SIGNIFICANT BARRIER FOR THE PARTICIPATION
OF WOMEN IN SPORTS.
ANY INVOLVMENT IN STRENOUS PHYSICAL COMPETITIONS WAS
PERCEIVED AS INNATE TO MASCULINE BEHAVIOR, WITH SERIOUS
NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES IF PRACTICED BY GIRLS AND WOMEN
ON REGULAR BASES.
MODERATE EXERCISE, HOWEVER, WAS PERCEIVED AS A POSITIVE
ELEMENT IN HELPING GIRLS AND WOMEN TO OVERCOME “FEMALE
FRAILTY”.
MODERATE EXERCISE, NO STRENOUS ACTIVITIES, NO PHYSICAL
CONTACT WITH OTHER ATHLETES, AND STRICT SUPERVISION,
WERE SEEN AS PARAMOUNT TO THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN
ORGANIZED SPORTS.
ATHLETIC & SOCIAL CLUBS
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PARTICIPATION OF AMERICAN WOMEN IN ORGANIZED PHYSICAL
ACTIVITIES FOLLOWS DIFFERENT TRENDS FROM THE MALE
SPORTS.
IN GENERAL THE DEEP ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SPORTS AND
MASCULINITY GENERATED A HOSTILE ATMOSPHERE FOR THE
PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN SPORTS.
IN MANY INSTANCES THE ONLY TWO VENUES FOR WOMEN
SPORTS WERE ATHLETIC & SOCIAL CLUBS AND COLLEGE
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES AND ACTIVITIES.
WEALTHY FAMILIES RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES.
CROQUET, GOLF, LAWN TENNIS, ARCHERY.
“WIFE AND DAUGHTERS OF CLUB MEMBERS”
1875-77 MARY OUTERBRIDGE FORMED THE WOMEN’S CLUB IN
STATEN ISLAND, N.Y. WITH LAWN TENNIS AS THE MAIN SPORT.
ATHLETIC & SOCIAL CLUBS
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TENNIS DEVELOPMENT IN CRICKET AND
BASEBALL CLUBS.
PHILADELPHIA CRICKET CLUB ORGANIZED
THE FIRST WOMEN’S NATIONAL TENNIS
TOURNAMENT IN 1887.
“REFINED GAMES FOR REFINED WOMEN”:
FULL-LENGTH DRESSES, COURT ETIQUETTE,
MODERATION AND RESTRAINT.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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AFTER CIVIL WAR, INCREASE IN WOMEN ATTENDING
COLLEGE.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES WERE CONCEIVED TO
HELP FEMALE STUDENTS TO ENDURE COLLEGE LIFE,
DESPITE THEIR “NATURAL FRAILTY”
MODERATE EXERCISE ONLY HELP vs. FEMALE FRAILTY,
REGULAR SPORTS RESTORE ENERGY USED IN
INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY.
PHY-ED FORMAL ACCEPTANCE, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL
OF GYMNASTICS 1889, SARGENT SCHOOL 1881.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES SPREAD TO OTHER
COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND LATER NATIONWIDE
SCHOOLS.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES SOON BECAME AN
IMPORTANT VENUE TO INTRODUCE WOMEN TO ORGANIZED
SPORTS AND EVENTUALLY COMPETITIVE SPORTS.
AS MORE WOMEN ATTENDED COLLEGE IN THE LAST
DECADES OF THE 19TH CENTURY, THERE WAS AN INCREASE
IN THE SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE FOR WOMEN IN SPORTS
UNDER SPECIFIC RULES & SUPERVISION.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROVIDE A REGULAR OUTLET FOR
ORGANIZED RECREATIONAL AND COMPETITIVE SPORTS.
MODERATE EXERCISE, NO-CONTACT PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
AND COMPETITIVE SPORTS WITH MODIFIED & SPECIFIC
RULES FOR WOMEN BECAME THE NORM FOR WOMEN IN
SPORTS.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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FEMALE STUDENTS IN COLLEGE FORMED THEIR
OWN BASEBALL TEAMS AND SCHEDULES.
SOON THEY WERE SUBJECTED TO HARSH
CRITICISM FOR PRACTICING A “MALE SPORT” AND
ENDANGERING THEIR BODIES AND MORALS.
COLLEGE AUTHORITIES DISBANDED FEMALE
BASEBALL TEAMS.
PROHIBITION FOR WOMEN TO ORGANIZE AND
PARTICIPATE IN COLLEGE BASEBALL REMAINED
THE PREVALENT RULE.
THE ATHLETIC GIRL
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THE COMBINATION OF PARTICIPATING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CLASSES IN COLLEGE AND JOINING ATHLETIC ACTIVITIES IN
COUNTRY & SOCIAL CLUBS MADE POSSIBLE THE “ATHLETIC GIRL”
GENERATION.
THE ATHLETIC GIRL COULD BE DEFINED AS: UPPER CLASS,
COLLEGE EXPERIENCE, CLUB MEMBER, URBAN SPHERE.
PHY-ED TRAINING, PLUS ACCESS TO CLUB SPORTS FACILITIES
FACILITATED THE PARTICIPATION OF THE ATHLETIC GIRL IN
“REFINED” SPORTS THAT ADHERE TO THE NO-CONTACT,
RESTRAINED COMPETITION, MILD EXERCISE RULES.
MODERATE SPORTS WITHIN THE CLUB BOUNDARIES, ELITES ONLY.
“NET-SPORTS” AND NO-CONTACT COMPETITIONS WERE DEEMED
IDEAL FOR THE ATHLETIC GIRL: TENNIS, HORSE RIDING, ARCHERY,
CROQUET, GOLF.
BICYCLE REVOLUTION
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1890s DESIGN CHANGES, MASS
PRODUCTION, AFFORDABLE.
UPPER CLASS, MIDDLE CLASS OUTDOOR
EXERCISE, FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT.
INDIVIDUAL-EGALITARIAN EXERCISE
MODERATE, NON-COMPETITIVE, NONELITIST.
BICYCLE CRITICS: “UTERINE DISPLACEMENT,
SPINAL SHOCK, DISTORTION OF FACIAL
MUSCLES, BICYCLE FACE”.
BICYCLE REVOLUTION
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THE MASS PRODUCTION OF BICYCLES AT THE TURN OF THE
CENTURY MADE THEM AFFORDABLE FOR MEN AND WOMEN
NATIONWIDE.
WOMEN OF LOWER SOCIAL CLASSES FOUND IN RIDING
BIKES A NEW WAY TO EXERCISE BEYOND THE BOUNDARIES
OF COLLEGE AND ATHLETIC CLUBS.
ALTHOUGH SUBJECTED TO HEAVY CRITICISM BY MALE
PHYSICIANS AND RELIGIOUS LEADERS, THE ARRIVAL OF A
BETTER DESIGNED AND CHEAP BYCICLE MADE POSSIBLEE
A WIDE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN BIKE RIDING AS A
REGULAR FORM OF EXERCISE.
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL
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1891 PHY-ED ROUTINE
SCHOOL TOURNAMENTS,
INTERCOLLEGIATE COMPETITIONS,
STATE CHAMPIONSHIPS.
FIRST COMPETITIVE TEAM SPORT FOR
WOMEN. FIRST POPULAR SPORT.
DEBATES OVER BASKETBALL AND
WOMEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES.
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL CRITICS
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MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT IN FEMALE
BODIES, REDUCTION OF DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN.
GREAT DANGER TO FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM.
SOURCE OF UNDESIRABLE PASSIONS AND
“UNBECOMING BEHAVIOR” FOR WOMEN.
TOO AGGRESSIVE, TOO CLOSE TO
PRIMITIVE APPETITES.
NO HELP FOR SEXUAL CONTROL.
BERENSON RULES
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SENDA BERENSON (NEE SENDA VALVROJENSKI IN LITHUANIA, 1869,
IMMIGRATED AS A CHILD TO THE UNITED STATES. STUDIED IN THE BOSTON
NORMAL SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS
SENDA BERENSON WAS HIRED IN 1892 AS PHYSICAL-ED DIRECTOR AT
SMITH COLLEGE, IN MASSACHUSETTS.
1893 BERENSON ORGANIZED A SCHOOL BASKETBALL TOURNAMENT.
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL WAS STRONGLY CRITICIZED. BERENSON THOUGHT
OF WAYS IN WHICH THE SPORT COULD BE ADAPTED TO THE GOALS OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ALLOW FEMALE PARTICIPATION.
MODIFICATION OF RULES TO FIT BASKETBALL WITH ORIGINAL PHY-ED
GOALS (MODERATED EXERCISE)
LESS PHYSICAL CONTACT DESIGNATED AREAS FOR PLAYERS, NO BALL-
SNATCHING, POINTS TAKEN FOR FOULING
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BERENSON RULES
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1899 PHY-ED COMMITTEE, LED BY BERENSON
AND SPALDING COMPANY PUBLISHED THE
“OFFICIAL RULES” OF WOMEN BASKETBALL.
1910s BERENSON RULES REPLACED BOYS RULES
NATIONWIDE.
PREVAILED IN HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
UNTIL THE 1960s.
BERENSON RULES ALLOW MANY FEMALE
STUDENTS TO PARTICIPATE IN BASKETBALL
COMPETITIONS AND PREVENTED CRITICS FROM
HAVING THE SPORT BANNED, AS IT HAD
OCCURRED WITH WOMEN’S BASEBALL.
BERENSON RULES
ADDITIONAL RULES WERE DEVISED TO MINIMIZE CONTACT
BETWEEN THE ATHLETES, REDUCE POTENTIAL INJURIES,
DECREASE THE INTENSITY OF THE GAME AND CREATE A
MORE APPROPRIATE SPORT FOR FEMALE STUDENTS:
 DIVISION LINES (3 FIELDS)
 TEN ON TEN
 NO DRIBBLING
 NO SNATCHING
 THREE BOUNCES MAX. LIMIT THEN PASS.
 PLAYERS ALLOW TO HOLD THE BALL FOR NO MORE THAN
THREE SECONDS
SPORTS AND GENDER DEBATE
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ATHLETICS MAKE GIRLS MASCULINE
DOCTORS, EDUCATORS, JOURNALISTS OPENLY CRITICIZED
ATHLETICS FOR WOMEN.
MODERATE EXERCISE, BENEFITS OF EXERCISE, PHYSICAL
EDUCATION CLASSES, POSITIVE INFLUENCE ON “FEMALE
FRAILTY”
PROHIBITED SPORTS FOR WOMEN: BOXING, BASEBALL,
RUGBY, WRESTLING, WATER POLO, ETC.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM RISKS, ALWAYS A PRESENT
ELEMENT IN SKEPTICS’ VIEW OF FEMALE ATHLETICS.
MODIFICATION PRINCIPLE, GOLDEN RULE FOR THE
PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN COLLEGE ATHLETICS.