Digital Media and Writing in Upper
Elementary Schools:
A Mixed Methods Study
Mark Warschauer
Binbin Zheng
Introduction
 The forms, purposes, and genres of writing
are experiencing rapid change with the use of
digital media inside and outside classroom
(Warschauer, 2007)
 This study investigated three forms of new
media technology-netbook computers,
automated writing evaluation, and social
media-and their impact on writing process as
well as writing outcomes.
Research Method
 Participants and settings
Teacher(n=85)
Student (n=2571)
California
(n=1221)
Colorado
(n=1265)
California
(n=40)
Colorado
(n=45)
Male
598
629
5
4
Female
623
636
35
41
4th Grade
1221
---
40
---
5th Grade
---
578
---
32
6th Grade
---
687
---
13
White
698
1012
36
42
Hispanic
281
156
1
4
Black
45
26
---
---
Asian
123
56
---
---
Other
74
15
3
---
English Language Learners
247
95
---
---
GATE students
175
282
---
---
IEP Students
158
103
---
---
Ethnicity
Research Questions
1
Frequencies of technology use
2
Perceptions of technology use in writing
3
Effect on writing achievement
Research Method
 Source of Data




Semi-structured Interviews: 100 teachers and students
Classroom observations: 60 hours
Documents: lesson plans, online materials
Test Score Data
• Colorado Student Assessment Program (CSAP): 2008-2010
• California Standards Test (CST): 2008-2010
• California District Writing Score: Fall 2009, Spring 2010
 Survey: Teacher and student survey on computer use
Research Method
Data Analysis
 Qualitative coding of field notes and interview
transcripts
 Regression analysis on test scores and survey
responses
• Comparison with state standards
• Estimate the magnitude of effect: using residualized
change model
Findings
 How frequently do students use these
technologies?
Laptop Use at School
learn basic use
write or edit papers
use a spreadsheet
make a powerpoint
get news or information online
communicate online
use a digital textbook
do drills or games
take tests or quizzes
post writing in blogs or wikis
comment on others' writing
access videos
Most frequent use:
--- Write or edit papers
--- Get news or information online
Findings
 How do these uses vary by different
demographic groups?
California School District
Colorado School District
Computer use at school
Computer use at school
ELL
706
0.14*
(0.06)
0.23*
(0.10)
N
Male
Asian
0.32*
(0.14)
ELL
0.69***
(0.13)
Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001
(0.04)
N
1220
Controlling variables: gender, ethnicity, ELL, GATE, and IEP status
Findings

attitudes
Students' agreement on writing
Write more
Revise more
California
Get more feedback
Colorado
Prefer to type on computer
Spell check helps writing
Quality of writing improved
0%
20%
40%
60%
80% 100%
 Student quote

“I've actually enjoyed writing more, because personally, in the past, I haven't been able
to write for very long without my wrist starting to hurt. Having a laptop, the pain has
ended, and my writing has improved so very much within just this year… I've written my
best essays, poems, summaries, anything, you name it, this year.”
--- Student “Tristan”

“I used to not like writing but now I keep looking at the time and inside I am saying ‘Is it
time for writing yet?’ If you don’t believe me come visit us… You have to see it to believe
it because your eyes will pop out. “
--- Student “Lupita”
Findings
 Impact on academic achievement
4th grade CST ELA
5th/6th grade reading and writing
CST Score Compared to State Standards
7.10%
7.00%
6.90%
6.80%
6.70%
6.60%
6.50%
6.40%
6.30%
6.20%
CSAP Score Compared to State Standard
4th
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%
8.00%
6.00%
4.00%
2.00%
0.00%
5th
2008
2008
2009
2010
4th grade: increased growth in both two years;
5th grade: decreased growth in 2009-2010;
6th grade: increased growth in 2009-2010.
2009
2010
6th
Findings
2010 score
 Impact on writing achievement
2009 score
(0.04)
Free lunch
Coefficients from the Regression of Writing Achievement on Computer Use
Independent
Variables
2008 score
2009 score
2009
grade
Hispanic
grade
IEP
Proficiency Score
2009
5th
grade
2010
6th
grade
2009
4th
grade
2010
5th
grade
2009
5th
grade
2010
6th
GATE
---
0.66***
---
0.45***
---
0.53***
---
(0.04)
---
(0.03)
---
(0.04)
---
(0.03)
---
---
0.72***
---
0.76***
---
0.49***
---
0.52***
---
(0.03)
---
(0.04)
---
(0.03)
-4.67
-2.25
-9.53***
-0.22***
-0.06
-0.07
-0.10*
(3.07)
(2.61)
(2.78)
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.04)
(0.04)
-0.55
0.11
-9.67*
-10.06*
-0.07
0.01
-0.13
-0.23***
-13.08***
(2.92)
(0.04)
(5.03)
(5.10)
(4.41)
(4.84)
(0.08)
(0.08)
(0.07)
(0.07)
Black
-7.21
-4.43
-26.97**
11.72
-0.18
-0.00
-0.32
-0.12
(8.76)
(8.66)
(10.37)
(11.56)
(0.15)
(0.13)
(0.17)
(0.16)
Asian
14.03*
8.63
5.97
6.56
0.22
-0.02
-0.04
0.15
(7.11)
(7.52)
(6.23)
(6.91)
(0.12)
(0.12)
(0.10)
(0.10)
0.98
-29.03*
-14.37
1.64
0.05
-0.45*
-0.17
-0.21
(12.82)
(13.58)
(13.27)
(14.74)
(0.21)
(0.21)
(0.21)
(0.21)
2.98
-10.15
5.59
4.06
0.03
-0.08
0.03
0.07
Other
ELLs
GATE
(6.47)
(6.67)
(5.51)
(6.07)
(0.11)
(0.10)
(0.09)
(0.09)
21.54***
20.87***
16.09***
17.86***
0.33***
0.30***
0.26***
0.22***
(3.64)
IEP
Computer use
_cons
N
(3.85)
(3.41)
(3.69)
(0.06)
(0.06)
(0.05)
(0.05)
-7.67
-18.97***
-19.12***
-11.72*
-0.24**
-0.31***
-0.23**
-0.24***
(5.19)
(5.30)
(4.75)
(5.19)
(0.09)
(0.08)
(0.08)
(0.07)
3.28
-5.94**
-0.82
4.72*
0.03
-0.05
-0.02
0.06*
(1.96)
(1.99)
(1.93)
(2.08)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
220.21***
170.91***
196.99***
143.81***
1.58***
1.54***
1.47***
1.37***
(17.58)
(19.19)
(16.11)
(18.37)
(0.12)
(0.11)
(0.11)
(0.11)
508
536
538
568
508
536
538
568
-0.10
(0.06)
grade
0.59***
--Male
2010
5th
-0.03
(0.09)
Scale Score
4th
0.47***
0.17**
(0.07)
Last grade
-0.01
(0.03)
Asian
0.21***
(0.07)
Hispanic
-0.06
(0.06)
Black
0.09
(0.11)
Other
-0.37
(0.54)
ELLs
-0.04
Male
-0.12***
(0.06)
(0.04)
25-50% computer use
0.00
(0.06)
50-75% computer use
0.01
(0.06)
75-100% computer use
0.11*
(0.06)
_cons
1.67***
(0.17)
N
627
Findings
 Compared with previous cohort
4th – 5th grade
30
5th-6th grade
p<0.01
25
20
15
distrcit mean
score
10
5
0
2008- 20092009 2010
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
p<0.01
distrcit mean
score
20082009
20092010
Conclusions
 Extensive use of netbooks in classrooms,
especially in writing and among English
Language Learners;
 Effect of laptop use on writing in 2009-2010:
• Achievement growth increased compared to
previous cohort.
• Negative effect of laptop use on writing in the first
year implementation, positive effect on writing in
the second year implementation.
 Students identify themselves as writers when
engaging in blogs and wikis.
Implications
 Low-cost netbook computers and free social
media appeared to provide a helpful
environment for assisting fourth to sixth grade
students to develop as writers;
 English Language Learners make use of
netbooks more than other students and
develop positive attitudes towards the effect of
netbooks on writing;
 More longitudinal research is needed to
evaluate the effect of laptop programs.