Bubalamai Bawa Gumada (Healing the Wounds of the Heart):
The search for resiliency against racism for Aboriginal Australian students
Gawaian Bodkin-Andrews
Warawara – Department of Indigenous Studies, Macquarie University
&
National Indigenous Research and Knowledges Network
gawaian.bodkin-andrews@mq.edu.au
Aboriginal Australian peoples possess cultures
that are a great deal more than simple or
“primitive”… Our cultures, instead, are based
on the scientific premise of observation and
experience, and the results recorded, through
story, in the memories of future generations
(Bodkin, 2013, p.2).
Midan Yewing
What you see
Barkolo Yewing
What others see
Duragai Yewing
What is
Maridyulu Yewing
What was
Wugul Yewing
What will be
“…Theory demands critique on how racialised relationships between the
researcher and the researched are perpetuated…. This critique is extended
to making transparent the racialised representation through erosion and
denial of agency” (Martin, 2004, p. 51)
Epistemological racism
(Sheurich & Young, 1997).
Epistemological racism means that our current range of research
epistemologies… arise out of the social history and culture of the dominant
race... While excluding the epistemologies of other races/cultures (p. 8).
1.
2.
3.
The ‘Others’ histories are not seen as legitimate;
The ‘Others’ becomes distorted, sensationalised, and pathological;
‘Other’ scholars must be bi-cultural.
One of the worst racism, though, for any generation or group is the one that we do
not see, that is invisible to our lens – the one we participate in without consciously
knowing or intending it (Sheurich & Young p. 12).
Racism?
Psychological research focuses largely on attitudes and behaviours
“an antipathy based upon a faulty
and inflexible generalization. It may
be felt or expressed. It may be
directed toward a group as a whole,
or toward an individual because
[they are] a member of that group”
(Allport, 1954, p.4 italics added)
“Consequently, only extremes of behaviour come under scrutiny, deflecting
attention from everyday racism… when most people claim to not to be
racist, it is this extreme or exaggerated form to which they refer”
(Hollinsworth, 2006, p.43)
Old-fashioned VS Modern Racism
•Old-fashioned: is the overt expression of beliefs and stereotypes
based upon segregation and biological superiority:
“I wouldn't like any member of my family to marry an Aborigin[al]”
(Pedersen & Walker, 1997)
•Modern: is an ambivalence towards the disadvantages suffered by
minority groups, resulting in a general resistance to correcting the
status-quo:
“Over the past few years, the government have shown more respect for
Aborigin[als] than they deserve”
(Pedersen & Walker, 1997)
1984
58% of high school students reported holding negative beliefs about Aboriginal
Australians (Jordan, 1984);
1994
50% of WA residents reported high levels of old-fashioned racism (Walker, 1994).
1997
27.2% of WA residents scored high in old-fashioned racism
-57.9% high levels of modern racism (Pedersen & Walker, 1997).
2000
23.8% of participants scored high in old-fashioned racism
-59.9% of participants reported high levels of modern racism (Pedersen, et
al., 2000)
2009
Across 4020 NSW residents, only 12% held racially blatant prejudicial attitudes
(Dunn, et al., 2009)
Beyond Blue (2014)
-
10% would purposely not sit next to an Aboriginal Australian;
21% would move away from an Aboriginal Australian;
21% would watch an Aboriginal Australian when shopping;
42% believe Aboriginal Australians are given unfair advantages
37% believe Aboriginal Australians are lazy;
31% believe Aboriginal Australians should behave like other Australians;
20% believe racist terms to describe Aboriginal Australians are not bad.
9% would not hire an Aboriginal Australian;
6% would verbally abuse an Aboriginal Australian;
12% would tell jokes about Aboriginal Australians;
What’s Missing?
• Returning to Dunn, et al.’s (2009) research:
- 63% of Aboriginal Australians experienced racism;
- 45% of Muslim Australians experienced racism. Image by
Sam Wallman
Western Voice - Indigenous Voice
(Pedersen & Walker, 1997)
(Mellor, 2004)
Old fashioned
Individual
Overt
Blatant
Physical threats,
Verbal abuse…
Biological superiority
Segregation…
Institutional
Racism?
Ambivalence,
Accepting status quo…
Modern Covert
Subtle
Discrimination
Unfair Punishment,
Denial of Services…
Denial of History
Media misrepresentation
Macro
“The argument that there is a cultural norm
against racism... may thus be misleading, at
least in the Australian context. Not only was it
the norm for participants in this study to have
experienced racism in their daily lives but
much of the racism experienced was one-onone, blatant, old fashioned racism” (Mellor,
2003, p. 483).
• Zubrick, et al., (2006) found that Aboriginal youth were:
- 2+ times more likely to drink, smoke, suffer from clinically
significant emotional and behavioural problems, and have suicidal
thoughts.
• Larson, et al., (2007) found that Aboriginal adults were:
- 3.6 times more likely to suffer lower levels of physical health;
- 9.2 times more likely to suffer lower levels of mental health.
• Priest, et al., (2010) found that Aboriginal parents were:
- 3.6 times more likely to report drug problems; and
- children were 1.62 times more likely to be become ill.
• Priest, Paradies, Stuart, & Luke (2013) found that for Aboriginal youth
- 52.3% experienced racism; and were
- 3.7 times more likely to report lower levels of mental health;
- 2.0 time more likely to suffer from depression.
• Priest, Ferdinand, Perry, Paradies, & Kelaher (2014) found that for a
multicultural sample of school students:
- 33.2% experienced racism directly;
- 65.6 % witness racism vicariously.
• Bodkin-Andrews, et al., (2010) found that Aboriginal high school
students were:
- put at a 5-10% disadvantage in grades and achievement tests
across English, math and science.
- strongest association was with Academic Disengagement;
- Similar, but weaker effects were found for non-Indigenous
Students.
“From racist taunts in the school playground to
racial vilification in the media, the burden of
confronting that abuse falls on the Aboriginal people
at whom it is directed... We know as Aboriginal
people that in having to find resilience to oppose
racism, the effect can be tiring.”
(Zubrick et a., 2006, p. xi) .
Study 1 - Wingara Mangamai (dream of understanding)
• A total of 562 secondary students (Years 7-11) drawn from five secondary schools
across New South Wales:
- Mean age of 13.57 years
- 47.62% female and 52.38% male;
- 82 First Nations, 279 Anglo Australian, and 200 East/Asian;
- 47 Student interviews on their experiences of racism.
Study 2 – New Solutions for Maximising Indigenous
Students Full Potential
• A total of 1440 secondary students (Years 7-10) drawn from five secondary schools
across New South Wales:
- Mean age of 13.57 years;
- 51.1% female and 48.9% male;
- 372 Indigenous Australian and 1068 Anglo Australian.
Study 3 – Bubalamai Bawa Gumada
• In depth interview with 24 Aboriginal Australian community representatives within
the Sydney Region (Elders, Business Owners, Academics, CEOs)
Wingara Mangamai (dream of understanding)
Measured experiences of Interpersonal Racism (e.g., name calling) and academic
outcomes of Hopelessness, English and Math Self-ratings, and Aspirations to go to
University.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Equivalence Testing
A series of tests to determine the extent items reflect the theoretical underlying factor
structure, and the extent to which one may assume that a CFA model is equivalent in
meaning across differing groups (Byrne, 2012). Due to sample size limitations, the
sample was split into Anglo-Australian (n = 279), and ‘other’-Australians (n = 282):
Model 1: Free
Model 2: Factor Loadings
Model 3: Factor Covariance
Model 4: Intercepts
RMSEA
.07
.07
CFI
.95
.95
Acceptable
Acceptable
.07
.07
.95
.94
Acceptable
Acceptable
Descriptive Statistics
Racism
First Peoples
(n=83)
Anglo-Saxon
(n=279)
Asian/Eastern
(n=200)
Hopelessness
English
Ratings
Math
Ratings
Uni
Aspirations
Mean
Frequency
Mean
Mean
Mean
Frequency
2.79
53%
2.59
3.43
3.24
59%
1.86
33%
2.41
3.49
3.25
53%
2.43
52%
2.71
3.49
3.42
76%
Correlations
Hopelessness
English Rating
Math Rating
University Asp
First Peoples
.48*
-.25*
-19^
ns
Anglo-Saxon Asian/Eastern
.29*
.44*
ns
-.16*
-.12^
ns
-.22*
ns
Agents of Resiliency?
Utilising an Unconstrained Latent Interaction Modelling approach (Marsh, Wen, &
Hau, 2006), varying positive psychological constructs were examined to determine if
they could buffer the impact of racism.
Sense of Positive Cultural Identity
Research on the relations between varying forms of identity and student outcomes have
produced mixed results:
- Some evidence has questioned its importance within the schooling system
(Hattie, 2009; Amosa, Ladwig, Griffiths, & Gore, 2007);
- Other evidence has strongly attested to the worth of promoting identity
within the classroom (Craven & Magson, 2014; Munns, O’Rourke, & Bodkin-Andrews,
2013; Purdie, et al., 2000; Sarra, 2011).
• Cultural Identity Scale (Phinney, 1992): A measure assessing the extent to which
students are attached to their culture.
• Multiculturation (Bodkin-Andrews, et al., 2010). A measure capturing the extent to
which students felt that their culture is respected by others
First Nations Students and Identity
Positive Identity Multiculturation
Hopelessness
English Ratings
Math Ratings
University Aspirations
--
--
.21^
--
--
--
.21^
--
• Cultural Identity significantly interacted with Racism over Academic Hopelessness:
- Interpreted as a weak exacerbating effect where the impact of racism
increases as students’ attachment to their culture increases.
Anglo-Australian, Asian/Eastern Students and Identity
•
Positive Identity
Multiculturation
Anglo
Asian
Anglo
Asian
Hopelessness
-.22*
--
-.16*
--
English Ratings
.16*
--
.22*
--
Math Ratings
.17*
--
.19*
--
University Aspirations
.12^
--
.16*
--
Cultural Identity and Multiculturation significantly interacted with Racism over Academic
Hopelessness for Anglo-Australian students:
- Interpreted as a buffering effect where the impact of racism is negated as students’
attachment to their culture increases.
Emotional and Social Intelligence
There has been an increasing push to recognise the value of emotional intelligence
within schooling environments (Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan, & Majeski, 2004):
- Recent evidence suggests that emotional intelligence may not only directly
impact upon higher levels of achievement, but also more strongly interact with
cognitive intelligence in its influence over achievement (Qualter, Gardner, Pope,
Hutchinson, & Whiteley, 2012).
• Emotional Self-understanding (Bodkin-Andrews, 2011) assessing the extent to
which students are aware of their own emotions, and what may influence their
emotions;
• Emotional Self-regulation (Bodkin-Andrews, 2011) assessing the extent to which
students can control their own emotions;
• Emotional Empathy (Bodkin-Andrews, 2011) assessing the extent to which students
are aware of, and can connect with other people’s emotions and experiences.
First Nations Students, Racism and Emotional Intelligence
Self-understanding
Self-regulation
Empathy
Hopelessness
-.23*
-.40*
--
English Ratings
.24*
.32*
.25*
--
.24*
--
.29*
.44*
.50*
Math Ratings
University Aspirations
• Only Self-Regulation significantly interacted with Racism over Academic
Hopelessness:
- Interpreted as a weak buffering effect where the impact of racism was not as
strong when Self-Regulation was high.
Anglo-Australian, Asian/Eastern and Emotional Intelligence
Self-understanding
Self-regulation
Empathy
Anglo
Asian
Anglo
Asian
Anglo
Asian
-.19*
--
-.25*
--
--
--
--
--
--
.20*
--
--
Math Ratings
.18*
--
.30*
--
--
.17*
University Aspirations
.14*
--
.16*
--
.24*
--
Hopelessness
English Ratings
• Numerous interaction effects were identified for Self-Regulation and SelfUnderstanding for both groups
-
For the Anglo-Australian students, Self-Understanding and Self-Regulation
buffered these students against the negative impact of racism.
-
For the Asian/Eastern students, exacerbating were found with SelfUnderstanding over Hopelessness and English and Math Ratings, and also
for Self-Regulation over Hopelessness.
Positive Academic Self-Perceptions
Positive school self-perceptions have long been encouraged within the schooling
environment for not only Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (Craven &
Marsh, 2008; Martin, 2006; Purdie, et al., 2000), but students from all cultural
backgrounds (Huebner, & Hills, 2011; Marsh & Martin, 2011).
• School Self-concept (Marsh, Ellis, Parada, Richards & Heubeck, 2005) assessing
the extent to which students feel confident at school.
• Academic Buoyancy (Martin &Marsh, 2008) assessing the extent to which students
can bounce back from setbacks in their studies.
First Nations Students, Racism and Academic Self-Perceptions
School Selfconcept
Buoyancy
Hopelessness
-.34*
-.29*
English Ratings
.55*
.50*
Math Ratings
.43*
.43*
University Aspirations
.41*
.23*
• School Self-Concept held a strong buffering effect against racism over English
ratings.
Anglo-Australian, Asian/Eastern Students and Academic SelfPerceptions
School Self-concept
Buoyancy
Anglo
Asian
Anglo
Asian
Hopelessness
-.58*
-.54*
--
--
English Ratings
.33*
.50*
--
--
Math Ratings
.49*
.36*
.20*
.17*
University Aspirations
.41*
.36*
--
--
• Academic Self-concept buffered Anglo-Saxon students against the negative effects
of racism from increased levels of Academic hopelessness and decreased levels of
Math ratings.
• Academic Buoyancy showed an exacerbating effect with regards to the negative
effects of racism on Academic Hopelessness for both the Anglo-Australian and
Asian/Eastern students.
Contemporary Racism in Australia
(Mellor, 2003)
- Individual racism (e.g. name calling, assault)
- Institutional discrimination (e.g. denial of services)
- Macro discrimination (e.g. media misinformation).
Individual Racism
Healing the Wounds of the Heart (adults)
Particularly as a child. Other kids calling you names - smelly, darkie, blackie, those
sorts of things, coon. As a child you don't see it, but looking back I think there was
probably some views from some teachers in my life that I was never going to succeed
(Aboriginal Politician)
Wingara Mangamai (high school students)
Some of the students have no respect. I've been spat on by some of them because
they've got nothing better to do (Year 8 student).
People always say stuff to me because they don't think I'm Aboriginal because I'm
white. But I just tell them to shut up (Year 9 student).
Institutional Racism
Healing the Wounds of the Heart (adults)
We pulled up to a hotel that had the vacancy sign that said they had vacancies. [My
partner] went in there and they said, no, we haven't got any rooms available. He came
back to the car and I said, that's a bit strange, because the Vacancy sign's out. So I said,
all right, well, I'll go in there and see if they've got any rooms available. So I went in
there and they said, yes, we've got a room. (Aboriginal Artist)
Wingara Mangamai (high school students)
It's just like it's one of those things where you're like a pat on the back and then you
can go. It should be more of an it's okay, we'll reassure you that there's nothing wrong
with your culture, your skin… (Year 8 student).
Macro Racism
When I was going to school, all through my primary school I was taught British
things. I even believed, at some stage, Captain Cook did discover us - until I got a
hit up the side of the head by my grandma to straighten me out and all that
(Aboriginal Historian).
I watch the news a little bit and I see a little bit of racism on the news, once in a
while… I reckon sometimes they beat it up a little bit. Then other times, it hit me
going, oh yeah, it's truth (Year 9 student).
-Personal Racism (Bodkin-Andrews, et al., 2010): Capturing how students may have experience
racism in everyday interactions.
-Teacher Discrimination (Wong, et al., 2003): Capturing how student perceived their teachers
treating them unfairly because of their race .
-Macro Discrimination (Bodkin-Andrews, et al., 2010). Capturing the degree to which students
feel their culture is misrepresented and stereotyped overall.
Anglo Australian
Aboriginal Australian
Person
Macro
Person
Macro
Teach
.57
Teach
.45
.56
.65
Model 1: Free
Model 2: Factor Loadings
Model 3: Factor Covariance
Model 4: Intercepts
.52
.86
RMSEA
.06
.07
CFI
.96
.95
Acceptable
Acceptable
.07
.07
.94
.94
Acceptabl(ish)
Acceptabl(ish)
Mean Scores
Personal Racism
Teacher Racism
Macro Racism
Aboriginal
Australian
Anglo
Australian
Significant
Difference
2.65
1.83
3.61
1.90
1.36
2.61
-.30*
-.26*
-.42*
Digging Deeper
Percentage of Aboriginal Australians who experienced:
- Personal Racism = 54% vs 27% non-Indigenous
- Teacher Racism = 61% vs 37% non-Indigenous
- Macro Racism = 87% vs 61% non-Indigenous
Modelling Racism, Academic Disengagement and
Uncertain Control
Grade
Parent Uni
Uncertain
Control
Employed
Resources
Gender
Racism
Disengage
Positive Self-Concepts
“To say that self-esteem is a basic human need is to say that it makes an
essential contribution to the life process… Positive self-esteem operates, in
effect, as the immune system of consciousness, providing resistance,
strength and capacity for regeneration” (Branden, 1994, p. 14).
General Self-concept;
School Self-concept;
Math Self-concept;
English Self-concept;
Physical Appearance;
Physical Abilities
Emotional Stability;
Honesty Self-Concept;
Parental Relations;
Same Sex Self-concept;
Opposite-sex Self-concept;
“A recurring theme from the field trips indicated that the success of
Aboriginal students in junior secondary school, as in other phases of
schooling, will only improve if schools can support and strengthen the
self-esteem of their students…” (The Report into the Review of Aboriginal
Education, 2004, p. 110).
Uncertain Control
Indigenous
1
Teach racism = .39
2
Anglo
School SC = -.42
Disengagement
Indigenous
Anglo
School SC = -.52
School SC = -.55
Emo Stab SC = -.33 Math SC = -.39
General SC = -.52
General SC = -.51
3
Same Sex SC = -.26
Teach Racism = .45
Math SC = -.45
4
Person Racism = .24 Honest SC = .-31
Person Racism = .37
Verbal SC = -.39
5
Macro Racism = .24
Verbal SC = -.30
Verbal SC = -.35
Parent SC = -.34
6
Opp-Sex SC = -.24
Physical SC = -.30
Math SC = -.31
Person Racism = .34
Same Sex SC = -.34
7
Person Racism = . 29 Honest SC = -.31
Honest SC = -.32
8
General SC = -.29
Macro Racism =. 26
Opp Sex SC = -.30
9
Macro Racism = .28
Same Sex SC = -.24
Teach Racism = . 30
10
Emo Stab SC = -.28
Parent SC = -.24
Same Sex SC = -.25
11
Opp Sex SC = -.22
Opp Sex SC = -.21
Physical SC = -.25
12
Appear SC = -.20
Macro Racism = .25
13
Same Sex SC = -.20
Appear SC = -.24
14
Teach Racism = .19
Latent Interaction Modelling
• 9 significant interaction effects were identified for the Aboriginal Australian
students, 25 for the non-Indigenous students;
-
For the Aboriginal students, only 2 factors acted as buffer (School SelfConcept), 3 were negated, and 4 exacerbated;
For the non-Indigenous students, 15 acted as buffers, 10 were negated.
Exacerbating
Buffering
Negating Effect
Effect
Effect
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email
gawaian.bodkin-andrews@mq.edu.au
Artwork by Uncle Ross Evans