Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
Dominique Senn, seecon gmbh
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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Contents
1. Urbanisation
2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
6. References
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1. Urbanisation
Urbanisation...
...is one of the most important demographic trends of our time.
In 2008, the number of people living in urban centres worldwide has for the first time surpassed
the number of people living in rural areas. It is estimated that by 2050, the percentage of urban
population will reach nearly 70% (BIRCH et al. 2012). Graphic source: UN-DESA (2010) and UN-DESA (2011)
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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1. Urbanisation
Four drivers of urbanisation:
1. Natural demographic growth of urban populations
2. Absorption of rural settlements located at the edges of expanding
cities
3. Transformation of rural towns into urban centres
4. Migratory movements from rural areas to cities.
Urban growth in Manila,
Philippines.
Source:
http://www.earthzine.org/2011/07/20/remotesensing-%E2%80%93-an-effective-data-source-forurban-monitoring/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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1. Urbanisation
Main challenges of water and sanitation in the urban context
For developed countries:
-
High operation and maintenance costs and decay of existing
infrastructure
For developing countries:
-
Adequate water and sanitation service provision and coverage rates
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Major differences between the natural water cycle and the conventional urban water cycle.
Source: http://waterbydesign.com.au/whatiswsud/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Disruption of the natural water cycle
The conventional urban water cycle is
characterised by a linear infrastructure that
transports clean water into and wastewater
out of urban neighbourhoods.
Source: www.sgiquarterly.org/feature2008Jly-8.html [Accessed: 19.12.2013]
Due to a high percentage of
sealed soil and thus impervious
surfaces, evapotranspiration
and groundwater recharge are
reduced and low quality
surface runoff is increased.
Utilities are often left to deal
with extremely large volumes
of water, especially during wet
weather (CORCORAN et al.
2010).
Graphic source:
http://www.chaucer.ac.uk/ctsshared/Geography/GCS
E%20Geography/Paper%201%20GCSE%20Revision/Revis
e%20Water%20on%20Earth/Water%20L3%20Floods/Wat
er-Cycle%20Urban.jpg [Accessed: 19.12.2013]
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Pollution of water sources (1/2)
It is estimated that more than 90% of sewage
in the developing world is discharged directly
into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters without
treatment of any kind (LUETHI et al. 2009).
Graphic Source: LUETHI et al. 2009
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Pollution of water sources (2/2)
In low- and middle-income countries, leaking on-site sanitation facilities and the absence of
sewerage pipes that dispose of the wastewater, result in large volumes of local wastewater
soaking into the soil, and eventually seeping into aquifers and polluting groundwater (GROENWALL
et al. 2010).
Graphic source: GTZ
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Depletion of groundwater sources
The use of groundwater is a common
feature of many urban areas. More than
half of the world’s megacities depend on
groundwater.
Chicago has been using groundwater since at least 1864 and
groundwater has been the sole source of drinking water for
about 8.2 million people in the Great Lakes watershed. This
long-term pumping has lowered groundwater levels by as
much as 900 feet.
Source: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
Broken nutrient cycles and impoverished soils
The “end-of-pipe” paradigm discourages recovery and reuse so that
nutrients are lost to water bodies. This can cause algal blooms and a
depletion of oxygen in receiving water bodies (HOWE et al. 2011). At
the same time, as soils lose their nutrients to receiving water bodies,
more and more fertiliser needs to be applied.
Algal bloom in China, caused
by pollution from agriculture
and industry.
Source:
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013
/jul/04/china-algal-bloom-yellow-sea-green
[Accessed: 05.01.2014]
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2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics
High water demand
The concentration of a great quantity of population and activities on a
small area involve the need of a great amount of good quality water. In
many cities, per capita water consumption is on the rise. At the same
time, water is often wasted if users have little financial incentive to
use it sparingly.
Cost-intensive infrastructure for water supply and wastewater collection
Centralised networks are very cost-intensive in terms of construction,
operation and maintenance. If the networks are not sufficiently
maintained, leakages lead to a loss of valuable resources, unreliable or
irregular water supply and low revenue collection for the utilities.
Many large cities suffer from chronic water shortages due to overexploitation of raw water resources, and to losses of water, which
sometimes reach up to 60% of the volume of water supplied (UNESCO
et al. 2004).
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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
Slum settlements
In a large number of the world’s poorest countries, the proportion of
urban poor is increasing faster than the overall rate of urban population
growth. In some African and Asian countries, more than 90% of the
population live in slums.
Proportion of each country’s
urban population living in
slums.
Source:
http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/stats-onhuman-rights/statistics-on-poverty/statistics-onpoverty-urbanization-and-slums/ [Accessed:
05.01.2014]
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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
Characteristics of slum settlements and implications for water and
sanitation management
-
Slums (also called peri-urban areas) are informal settlements,
unguided by urban planning. Irregular layout and spontaneous
construction make the subsequent expansion of networks into densely
populated areas very difficult.
-
High population density complicates the construction of water,
sanitation and treatment facilities or network expansions.
-
Low tenure security makes the provision of water and sanitation
services through investments in large infrastructure extremely
difficult.
-
Slums are characterised by high poverty rates. People are often not
able to pay for network expansion and improved service delivery.
-
The relative distance to existing networks makes network expansion
very costly.
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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
Water supply and sanitation
Urban slums generally lack improved water supply and sanitation
facilities.
Households with water (left) and sewerage (right) connection in sub-Saharan African Cities.
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
Source: WUP & WSP (2003).
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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
Peri-urban water supply
In order to cover
their needs with
regard to water
supply, the periurban poor often
depend on a variety
and combination of
means.
Typical water market
situation in African cities.
Source: WUP & WSP (2003).
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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements
Sanitation
Pit latrines are common sanitation facilities in urban slums.
But in many cases even such basic means
are lacking and people are forced to
practice open defecation or dispose of their
excreta in plastic bags which they throw on
the roofs or at the street (“flying toilets”).
Children disposing of a “flying toilet” in a slum in Kenya.
Source: http://practicalaction.org/blog/where-we-work/kenya/flying-toilets-what-they-are-and-how-to-get-rid-ofthem/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Pollution of water sources
Pit latrines are often
constructed close to
groundwater sources.
During heavy rains, the
latrines tend to get flooded,
and polluted water seeps
through the soil.
Groundwater pollution
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
The impervious and
unvegetated ground of slum
areas has little or no
retention during heavy rains.
Human and animal wastes
are flushed into surface
water systems.
Pollution of urban water
supplies, rivers and
productive coastal waters.
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Health
Approximately 80% of all diseases and 25% of all deaths in developing countries are caused by polluted
water and insufficient water supply, sanitation and hygiene (LUETHI et al. 2009). This situation is
particularly accentuated in urban slums.
Graphic Source: http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/eenet_newsletter/news14/page12.php/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Poverty
A lack of adequate water and sanitation solutions perpetuates poverty,
because:
-
Adults who are ill themselves or who need to take care of their
children are less productive.
-
Health costs induced by the lack of adequate water, sanitation and
hygiene practices can consume a large part of the poor household’s
income.
-
The time spent to fetch water cannot be invested into incomegenerating activities.
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Education and gender
-
The increased risk of contracting water-borne diseases as the primary
handlers of contaminated water…
-
The serious challenge to reproductive health presented by a lack of
clean water and hygiene services…
-
The responsibility of providing care to children and other family
members suffering from illness…
… continue to exclude many women and girls from educational
opportunities.
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Dignity and security
Due to the lack of adequate sanitation facilities, many people living in
urban slums are forced to defecate in the open. In order to preserve
their dignity, they often try to defecate in the open under cover of
darkness. This poses an important security risk, particularly for women
and girls. This risk is also given if water needs to be fetched during the
night.
Open defecation poses serious security and health risks,
particularly for women and girls.
Source: http://www.colorsmagazine.com/stories/magazine/82/story/toilets-of-the-world [Accessed:
05.01.2014]
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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation
Economic costs
Illnesses, high rates of mortality and reduced productivity because of
poor water and sanitation solutions induce large economic costs.
Annual losses
due to poor
sanitation –
the example
of Kenya.
Source:
http://www.worldbank
.org/content/dam/Wor
ldbank/Feature%20Stor
y/SDN/Water/infograp
hic-sanitation-esi900x4140.jpg
[Accessed: 05.01.2014]
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
What is Urban SSWM
Urban Sustainable
Sanitation and Water
Management (Urban
SSWM) is an
integrated approach,
which aims at
designing and
managing the urban
water system in a
holistic manner.
Source: http://www.urbanwater.info/Areas/About/WaterSensitive-Urban-Design.aspx [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Decentralisation
Decentralised water supply and
wastewater treatment systems offer
increased opportunities for local
stakeholder participation in planning
and decision-making, and for
reutilisation of the resource at the
local level.
Illustration of locality mapping - a participatory
approach to provide a visual representation of
information in a particular geographical context concerning the water and sanitation problematic in a
village in South India.
Source: KROPAC (2004)
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Engagement of the private sector
Particularly in developing countries, public service providers are often
unable to keep up with urban population growth as they face a double
challenge of maintaining the existing and often deteriorated networks
and of extending the services to the rapidly growing settlements at
the peripheries of the cities.
Through the engagement of the private sector, service delivery can be
improved.
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Creation of Revenue Opportunities
For example:
-
Small-scale service provision for construction of appropriate
system components
-
Collection, transport, storage and processing/recovery of products
from sanitation systems (e.g. biogas, fertiliser, soil conditioner,
irrigation water)
-
Resources management
-
Surveys, analyses, and impact evaluation (e.g. market surveys,
institutional analysis, impact evaluation of previous sanitation
strategies, and sustainability assessments)
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Reuse Opportunities
Urban SSWM (right), unlike the
conventional urban water cycle
(left), takes advantage of reuse
options including the reuse of
energy from wastewater through
biogas, the reuse of wastewater
and greywater for irrigation as
well as the reuse of nutrients
from human urine and excreta to
recover nutrients and limited
resources like phosphorus for
agriculture.
Source: HOWE et al. (2011)
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Financial Sustainability
If water supply and sanitation solutions are to be sustainable, they
need to remain operative over time. This requires, among others,
sufficiently high investments in the water sector and sound financial
planning.
The six key elements to financial
sustainability of WASH services.
Source: http://www.skat.ch/publications/prarticle.200509-29.5069774463/prarticle.2005-0929.1875579521/skatpublication.2012-1219.5550148854/image1 [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
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5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM
Stakeholder Engagement
Urban areas provide an ideal institutional structure for community
engagement.
Increased
stakeholder
engagement
Better
identification of
challenges
Demand-driven
solutions
More
significant
impact
Better commitment
and ownership
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6. References (1/2)
BIRCH, E.L.; MELEIS, A.; WACHTER, S. (2012): The Urban Water Transition. Why We Must Address the New Reality of
Urbanization, Women, Water, and Sanitation in Sustainable Development. In: sWH20: The Journal of Gender and
Water 1, 6-7. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania. URL: http://wh2ojournal.com/past-issues/volume-1number-1-april-2012/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]
CHOCAT, B. (2002): Sustainable Management of Water in Cities. Valencia: Universidad Internacional Menendez Pelayo.
URL: www.petus.eu.com/graphics/FRsusmanagecitiesBC.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
CORCORAN, E. (Editor); NELLEMANN, C. (Editor); BAKER, E. (Editor); BOS, R. (Editor); OSBORN, D. (Editor); SAVELLI, H.
(Editor) (2010): Sick Water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. A Rapid
Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal. URL:
http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/sickwater/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
GROENWALL, J.; MULENGA, M.; MCGRANAHAN, G. (2010): Groundwater, self-supply and poor urban dwellers. A review
with case studies from Bangalore and Lusaka. London: International Institute for Environment and Development
(IIED). URL: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10584IIED.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
HOWE, C. A. (Editor); VAIRAVAMOORTHY, K. (Editor); STEEN, P. N. van der (Editor) (2011): Sustainable Water
Management in the City of the Future. Findings from the SWITCH Project 2006-2011. Delft: UNESCO-IHE. URL:
http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/results.php [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
LUETHI, C.; MCCONVILLE, J.; NORSTROEM, A.; PANESAR, P.; INGLE, R.; SAYWELL, D.; SCHUETZE, T. (2009): Rethinking
Sustainable Sanitation for the Urban Environment. Amsterdam/Delft: International Forum on Urbanism (IFoU). URL:
http://www.susana.org/lang-en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=927 [Accessed: 05.01.2014]
UN-DESA (2010): World Population Prospects. The 2010 Revision. New York: Population Division of the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (UN-DESA).
http://esa.un.org/unup/unup/index_panel1.html [Accessed: 19.09.2013].
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6. References (2/2)
UN-DESA (2011): World Urbanization Prospects. The 2011 Revision. New York: Population Division of the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (UN-DESA).
http://esa.un.org/unup/unup/index_panel1.html [Accessed: 19.09.2013].
UNESCO (Editor); VEOLIA WATER (Editor); PS-EAU (Editor) (2004): Water, Sanitation and Sustainable Development. The
Challenge of Cities in Developing Countries. Paris: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), Veolia Water and Progamme Solidarité-Eau (pS-Eau). URL:
www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/veolia_eau_assainissement_developpement_durable_villes_pvd_en.pdf [Accessed:
05.01.2014]
WUP (Editor); WSP (Editor) (2003): Better Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor. Good Practice from Sub-Saharan
Africa. Kenya: Water Utility Partnership (WUP) and The World Bank Water and Sanitation Program (WSP). URL:
www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/330200725049_afBetterWaterandSanitationForTheUrbanPoorGoodPrac
ticeFromSSA.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2013]
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