Integrated Water
Resources Management
and the Manufactured
Scarcity of Water in
Africa
By Simphiwe Nojiyeza
What is IWRM
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Definition of IWRM
IWRM has been defined by the Global Water Partnership
(GWP) as: “a process that promotes the coordinated
management and development of water, earth, and
related resources in order to maximize the social and
economic benefits that will result in an equitable manner,
without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems” (GWP, 2000, de Moran and Ballestero,
2003:5, Biswas, 2008:7, Sanavanan, et. al., 2008:5,
Mukhtarov, 2009:1, Lloyd, et. al, 2006:13).
Characteristics of IWRM
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Decision making in participatory manner
A systematic process that look at the
hydrological cycle as a whole i.e. social, political,
health, pollution, balancing interests of various
users
Reforming water institutions, decentralisation,
river basin as a unit of analysis, devolution of
powers, deconcentration
Principles of IWRM (Dublin
Principles)
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Freshwater is finite and vulnerable resource,
essential to sustain life, development and
environment
Water development and management should be
based on a participatory approach involving users,
planners and policy makers at all levels.
Woman play a central part in the provision,
management and safeguarding of water
Water has an economic value in all its competing
uses and should be recognised as an economic good
Impacts of IWRM
implementation
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Competition amongst various users, pollution
The need for reliability and buffers
Attention to social dimensions
Reliable and sustained financing
Water security, efficient use, improved waste
management, gender equity
Barriers to the implementation of
IWRM
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Willingness to change
Lack of tools and systems for integration
Domination by water administration experts
Lack of quantitative knowledge on water
resources
Sustainability, operation and maintenance
No blueprints, imposition by donors, technical
other than social focus
Manufactured scarcity and African
case Studies
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Water Resources in Accra, Ghana
and Balaka, Tcheu, Mangochi
(Malawi)
Ghana is well endowed with water resources. The
Volta River system basin, consisting of the Oti,
Daka, Pru, Sene and Afram rivers as well as the
White and Black Volta rivers, covers 70% of the
country area.
Another 22% of Ghana is covered by the
southwestern river system watershed comprising
the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra rivers. The coastal
river system watershed, comprising the OchiNawuka, Ochi Amissah, Ayensu, Densu and Tordzi
rivers, covers the remaining 8% of the country.
Accra Water Resources Status
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Groundwater with a mean yield of 3.9 cubic metres
a day depending on whether it is Dahomeyan, Togo
series to the total recharge of 0.0381 cubic km per
year
Annual rainfall of 756 mm, surface water with a
drainage of 2.500 cubic km squared in Densu
Basin, Weija Dam, Akosombo Dam, Songo-Mokwe
Catchment, Sakumo 2 catchment, Volta river/ Lake
are some of water resources (Birner, et. al,
2011:54).
Malawi water resources
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Malawi is endowed with a variety of natural
resources which include expanses of water
systems (MIWD, 2005:1, Mkandawire, et. al,
2011:7) Malawi is generally considered to be
relatively rich in water resources, which are
stored in the form of lakes, rivers, and aquifers
(Ng’ong’ola, 1999:8, Ferguson and Mulwafu,
2004:3, FAO, 2007, Mkandawire, et. al, 2011:8).
Malawi Water Resources abundance
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Lake Malawi is the third largest freshwater lake in
Africa and the eleventh largest in the world, has a
total surface area of 28,760 km2
Other lakes Chilwa, Malombe and Chiuta
Water resources storage in the form of 700-750
dams, Precambrian and quaternary aquifers, shallow
wells and boreholes , Songwe, Shire and Ruo are
part of 17 Water Resources area and 78 water
resources units (Mkandawire et. al, 2011)
The water systems cover 21% of the country
Water supply status
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The main source of water supply is boreholes, lack of
regulation and compliance with drilling standards
There is one Water purification plant in the research area
(Balaka town), water borne toilets in Balaka, Mangochi and
Ncheu served with VIP and Traditional Latrines
Sanitation facilities are unimproved and VIP pit latrines, storm
water and drainage non existent. Water quality in Lake Malawi
compromised due to latrine effluent (DOIWD)
5 waste water treatment plants (Performance at the average of
80%, lack or drainage system, Kumasi VIP latrines, flush (3
pressure systems) toilets, septic tanks are main features in
Accra (EPA, 2011).
Effluents discharged into rivers, lagoons, causing diseases
Research questions
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The broad objective of this thesis is to examine water and
sanitation governance, new institutional economics and
environmental economics regarding the implementation of
IWRM. The focus on water governance means that we are
interested in collective action with respect to water and
sanitation issues. Water and sanitation governance is linked to
institutional mechanisms, property rights (private property vs.
public property) and whether provision is public or private,
decentralization or centralization and the role of market
mechanisms (Kuks, 2004:13,Wunsch, 2001, Indranil, 2010,
Franks, 2004, Batterbury and Fernando,2006, Castro 2007,
Oxhorn, Tulehin and Selee,2004).
New Institutional Economics
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The focus on new institutional economics means
that we are interested in transaction costs,
institutional evolution, constitutional choice,
collective action, information costs, law and
economics of contracts, institutional transaction
costs and how the theory of institutions could be
utilised to analyse water governance and
institutional frameworks ( Richter, 2003, Saleth,
2003, North, 1990, Miller, 2003, Saleth and Dinar,
2003, Klein, 1999, Williamson, 1999, Williamson
1995, Furubotn and Richter, Feige, 1990, Fiani,
2004, Streeck and Thelen, 2006, Selznick, 1996).
Environmental economics
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The focus on environmental economics is based
on eco efficiency, environmental performance,
sustainability, physical scarcity and economic
scarcity and externalities as either benefits or
losses associated with a water governance model
and an institutional framework (Massarutto,
2008, Asafu-Adjaye, 2000, Schaltegger and
Synnestvedt, 2002).
Sub- Questions
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The main research question is whether the implementation of IWRM
reduces or perpetuates water and sanitation poverty by recognizing
water as an economic good and promoting decentralization
governance models.
What is the main institutional shift in water and sanitation governance
that can be perceived in Africa as a result of the introduction of
IWRM?
How can we elaborate the elements of a water and sanitation
governance structure in terms of institutional mechanisms, property
rights, service provision (public or private), centralization or
decentralization and market mechanisms?
How can these water governance instruments be explained in terms of
institutional conditions under which they operate?
Other Sub Questions
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What transaction costs, institutional evolution,
constitutional choice, collective action, information
costs, law and economics of contracts and
institutional transaction costs could be associated
with the introduction of IWRM in AfDB supported
water and sanitation projects?
What eco efficiency, environmental performance,
physical scarcity and economic scarcity trends,
sustainability and externalities, could be associated
with the introduction of IWRM in Africa and
elsewhere?
Key Preliminary Findings
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Water and Sanitation Governance
In both case studies there are both formal (Meso) and
informal (Micro). District, Local and Sub councils, Ministries
such as Food and agriculture, Public Works and Housing,
Health, Fisheries, Community Water and Sanitation Agency,
Environmental Protection Agency, Volta River basin, Water
Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company Limited are
Formal in Ghana- roles defined in various acts and policies
Tindanas (Spiritual leaders), Traditional Leaders (National,
Local and Regional Houses) Water and sanitation committees,
Water User Associations are informal- roles are not written
but play meaningful roles in community water management,
irrigation land allocation and demand management
Meso and Micro Institutions in
Malawi
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Ministries for Irrigation and Water Development, Agriculture,
Natural Resources, Health, Meteorological Services, National
Water Resources Authority, 5 Water Utilities, District
Assemblies, Mpira Water Authority, are formal water
institutions established in accordance with Water Resources
Act of 1969, Water policy of 2005, Sanitation Policy of 2007,
Water Works Act of 1995.
Traditional Leaders, Irrigation boards, tap and sanitation
committees are informal (non statutory), but responsible for
tariffs setting, operation and maintenance of boreholes,
shallow wells, irrigation scheme control etc.
Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) Teams are
also informal although their training is done by MOIWD
Veblenian Dichotomy
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In both countries the implementation of IWRM tends to
be techno-scientific, dominated by hydrologists, water
engineers and socio economic, cultural aspects are
ignored in CMAs, Irrigation boards, WUAs, WATSAN
and this lead to Veblenian Dichotomy (Nabli and Nugent,
1989, Miller, 2003).
Collective Action in Accra with the establishment of
Coalition Against Water privatisation hosted by ISODEC,
CONIWAS and MOLE conferences and citizen action
and assemblies, Malawi Economic Justice Network,
Action Aid, WES-NGOs resisted private sector
participation in the water sector, campaigned for food
security
Principles of water and sanitation
governance
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Malawi recently completed a very open, transparent,
participative, accountable, effective, coherent, efficient,
communicative, equitable, integrative…. IWRM process
which involved government, private sector, CSOs,
academia (Mkandawire, et. al, 2011)… the challenges
revolves around implementation
The establishment of Water user associations, WATSAN
Committees, representation of CSOS in the Water
Resources Commission is commendable, but the
structures are not working and collection of 5% capital
costs of boreholes, small dams and operation and
maintenance and pay as you use is criticized as
undermining the very principles of IWRM (Laube, 2007)
Institutional Mechanisms
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The formal rules of the game such as Water resources
Commission Act of Ghana, Water Works Act of 1995
(Malawi), the availability of institutions such as Environmental
Protection Agency (Ghana), Water Resources Board (Malawi)
could not prevent sedimentation of dams, over use of
wetlands, effluent discharging in rivers and lakes causing
diseconomies / externalities
Price determinism vs institutionalisms- increasing tariffs to
benefit the poor dominates Accra Urban Water Management
and Vision 2030 strategy, enforcing payments and cut offs
dominates the thinking in Southern Water Board that
disconnects households in Balaka, and Rural parts of
Lilongwe
Lowering the demand for water, water rationing (Ghana)
Property Rights
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In both countries Water is a public property owned by
Heads of states- but irrigation schemes are constructed
by farmers and managed by Water User Associations
Households that are not paying in Accra are not allowed
to cultivate during dry seasons
Water schemes in Accra are utilities, vendors, community
managed, private providers- the price is determined by
who render the service
No regulation to protect fish species and water qualityprivate property elements- government aloof,
decentralised everything to users- self regulation
Public and Private Provision
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Ghana Water Company limited responsible for urban water,
Community Water and sanitation Agency is responsible for
rural and small town provision
In Greater Accra, GWCL is assisted by Aqua Vitens Rand
Limited through a 5 years management contract
Other providers are private kiosks, vendors, community
managed schemes with different tariff systems- GWCL is the
cheapest but inaccessible to people who rent property,
informal dwellers and other poor
5 commercial water boards serve water in Urban Malawi,
NGO funded schemes, community management in boreholes,
shallow wells, private irrigation schemes
Malawi Growth and Development Strategy- PRSP
Decentralisation and
Centralisation
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Ghana Water Company ltd., District Assemblies, WUAs,
WATSAN, CWSA, are decentralised institutions that serve
water and sanitation.
Private providers such as vendors , kiosks, community
management schemes using demand led – Price elasticity
models are also a form of decentralisation
In Malawi commercialised and state water boards, MOIWD
serve water in rural areas- proposed CMAs, NGOs, private
sector, assemblies are institutions established as a result of
decentralisation Act of 1998, recommended by Donors, but
MOIWD does most of the work.
Decentralised institutions lacks revenue to discharge their
responsibilities
The Role of Market Mechanisms
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Distribution channels – reticulation in Accra is done by
GWCL, AVRL, Vendors, CWSA, Community
Management Schemes, Water User Associations, NGOs
Bulk Water Supply is expected to be sold to WUAs,
WATSAN
Reticulation in Malawi is done by Regional water Boards ,
NGOs, MIWD
Access / consumption- 500 metres (Accra), 200 metres
(Balaka) average 40 Kilolitres p /h/month (12 People)
Willingness to pay dominates thinking in both countries,
no cross subsidisation in the pipeline
Transaction and Information
Costs
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Construction of water reservoirs – (by 2003) Cd1.3
Billion, rehabilitation costs- Cd.885 million,
community contribution of 5%
Transaction costs- administrative costs of planning
and supervising dam construction, capacity building
of WUAs, negotiation of land rights and land
registration- very high transaction costs
Environmental Impact Assessment costInformation cost – not always enforced in irrigation
Cost benefit analysis- 10 years use before breakeven
point is reached- ROA and ROI is very low
Institutional Evolution
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Institutions such as VLOM, Tap and Borehole
committees evolved to advance demand
management and shift from supply led
Even institutions such as WUAs, WATSAN evolved
to recover costs of construction, collect costs of
operation and maintenance, transaction and
information costs.
These are institutions of super exploitation of the
poor and vulnerable
CMAs evolved to support river basin approach to
IWRM
Constitutional Choice and Law of
Contracts
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The Constitution of Mpira Water Authority and Volta River
Basin are examples of constitutional choices supporting
institutional arrangements
EPA, Water Resources Board and Water Resources
Commission enforces water rights, abstraction rights- Water
Management contract – GWCL- AVRL (5year), not easy to
opt out
Water Resources Act of 1969 elaborated on custodianship of
water resources, water withdrawal, non revenue, Water Works
Act explain the role of Commercial and regional Water
Boards- implementation not clear
Law of Contract protect transacting parties e.g. water cut off
if farmers are not contributing 5% before cultivation
Eco Efficiency and Sustainability
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Discharging effluents from the 5 waste water
treatment works in Accra violated the right to
health and for future generations to live in a
healthy environment
Such pollution result in degradation of the
ecosystem, killing of the fish (Aquaculture) and
pollution of rivers, sedimentation, salinisation
of the lagoons , upstream- downstream divide
Environmental Performance
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Willingness to pay for environmental friendly
products pose a challenge in fertilizer used in
agriculture affecting quality of water
Lack of optimum environmental performance
through establishing environmental cost
accounting, ecological control systems
Lack of enforcement of environmental laws and
principles of polluter pays
Externalities
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In all case studies market instruments were used,
e.g. pollution tax, levies and subsidies imposed in
order to internalise externalities
Social Costs of charging both the polluter and the
victim is very prevalent
Soft loans, tax allowances were given to industries
to reduce pollution, market emission permits in a
bid process
There was lack of pollution reduction standards
and enforcement mechanisms