Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
CHAPTER 1:
Introducing Psychology and its
Methods
What Is Psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and the
mind.
Historical Roots
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
A Diversity of Perspectives
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Historical Roots
 Dualism

The assumption that the body and mind are
separate, though perhaps interacting,
entities.

René Descartes (1596-1650) was a dualist, and
believed that the mind could not be studied
scientifically.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Historical Roots
 Pioneers in the Study of the Mind

Wilhelm Wundt
• Established the first psychology laboratory
in 1879 and developed introspection.
– Wundt’s method of having trained observers
report on their conscious, moment-to-moment
reactions.

William James
• Published Principles of Psychology, 1890.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Historical Roots
 Pioneers in the Study of the Mind, continued

Sigmund Freud
• Introduced psychoanalysis in The
Interpretation of Dreams, 1900.
• Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of personality and
method of psychotherapy, both of which assume the
importance of unconscious processes.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Historical Roots
 The Behaviorist Alternative


In 1913, John B. Watson defined psychology as
the study of behavior, offering an alternative to
mentalistic approaches and marking the start of
behaviorism in the United States.
Behaviorism
• A school of thought that defines psychology as the
scientific study of observable behavior


Focus on environmental influences
Dominated psychology from the 1920’s to the
1960’s
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Historical Roots
 The “Cognitive Revolution”


Many types of evidence suggested that
behaviorism was too restrictive.
• These included studies of child development,
animal behavior, and brain studies
Cognition
• A general term that refers to mental processes
such as thinking, knowing, and remembering.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
 Basic Research

“Pure science” research that tests theories and
builds a foundation of knowledge.
 Applied Research

Research that aims to solve practical human
problems.
• Examples of applied research areas include
health, education, business, law, etc.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
In addition to psychology
branching out in basic and
applied areas of research (as
seen in this graph of the
dramatic increase in the
number of published articles
in psychology), it has become
more diverse, including more
female and minority
psychologists and more
psychologists from other parts
of the world.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
 Psychology as a Basic Science





Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives
Cognitive Perspectives
Developmental Perspectives
Social Psychological Perspectives
Clinical Psychology
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
 Psychology as a Responsive Science

Health
Education
Psychology in the Workplace
Consumer Behavior
The Environment
The Legal System

Sports, Politics, etc.

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
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Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
A Diversity of Perspectives
 Discrimination impeded women and
minorities. Some did succeed.


Harvard refused to grant the Ph.D. to Mary
Whiton Calkins (1890’s) who became the first
female APA President in 1905.
The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in
psychology was Francis Sumner from Clark
University in 1920.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
What is Psychology?
A Diversity of Perspectives
 Although psychology has faced a history of
discrimination in recruitment, today it is
more diverse.
 Diversity considerations are important for
both the areas of research and mental
health.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
The Research Process
Research Settings
Psychological Measurements
Research Designs
Ethical Considerations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
©2004 Prentice Hall
Scientific Methods
 Scientific methods unify the discipline of
psychology
 A basic goal in science is critical thinking

An approach to information that involves
• challenging assumptions
• systematic observations
• a reliance on evidence
• a careful scrutiny of the methods used to
derive evidence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
The Research Process
 The first step is to develop a theory.

An organized set of principles that describes,
predicts, and explains some phenomenon.
 The second step is to form a hypothesis.

A specific testable prediction, often derived from
a theory that provides operational definitions.
• An operational definition defines a research
variable in terms of the procedures needed to
control and measure it.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
The Research Process
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Settings
 Laboratory research

Research conducted in an environment that
can be regulated and in which participants
can be carefully observed.
 Field research

Research that is conducted in real-world
locations.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Psychological Measurements
 Self-Report

A method of observation that involves asking people
to describe their own thoughts, feelings, or behavior.
 Behavioral Observation

A form of research that is based on the firsthand
observation of a subject’s behavior.
 Archival Records

A form of research that relies on existing records of
past behavior.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
 No matter which research design is used in
a study, researchers rely on statistics to
analyze the results they collect.

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that is
used for analyzing research data.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
Descriptive Research
 Case studies

A type of research that involves making in-depth
observations of individual persons.
 Survey

A research method that involves interviewing or
giving questionnaires to a large number of people.
 Naturalistic observation

The observation of behavior as it occurs naturally in
real-world settings
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
 Correlation


A statistical measure of how closely two
variables are associated.
A correlation can range from -1.0 to +1.0.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
Explaining a Correlation
 Start with 3 variables,
(X, Y, & Z) where X
and Y are correlated:



X may cause Y
Y may cause X
Z may cause X and Y
 Correlations indicate
relationship patterns,
not causes
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
Experiments I

A research method in which the investigator
varies some factors, keeps others constant,
and measures the effects on randomly
assigned subjects.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
Experiments II
 Independent Variable


Any variable that the researcher manipulates in
an experiment.
The proposed cause of change in the dependent
variable.
 Dependent Variable


A variable that is being measured in an
experiment.
Proposed to be affected by the independent
variable.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Research Designs
Experiments III
 Experimental Group

Any condition of an experiment in which
participants are exposed to an independent variable.
 Control Group

The condition of an experiment in which
participants are not exposed to the independent
variable.
 Random Assignment

The procedure of assigning subjects to groups.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Ethics Considerations in Human Research
 Deception


A research procedure used to mislead participants
about the true purpose of the study
If deception is used, debriefing is necessary.
 Informed Consent

The ethical requirement that prospective
participants receive enough information to decide
freely whether to participate in a study
 And, data must be kept confidential, discomfort
must be minimized, and one must be free to
withdraw at any time.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Scientific Methods
Ethics Considerations in Animal Research
 Animal Welfare
 Minimization of pain and stress and humane
treatment are universally supported.
 Allegations of mistreatment in laboratories are
rarely supported by facts.
 Animal Rights
 There is no consensus over whether animals
have similar rights as humans.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology Today
Psychology as a Profession
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology Today
Where New Psychologists Are Getting Jobs
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology Today
Biological Perspectives
 Evolutionary Psychology

A subfield that uses the principles of evolution to
understand human social behavior.
 Behavioral Genetics

A subfield that examines the role of genetic
factors on behavior.
 Behavioral Neuroscience

A subfield that studies the links among the
brain, nervous system, and behavior.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology Today
Sociocultural Perspectives
 Cross-Cultural Research

A body of studies designed to compare and
contrast people of different cultures.
 Multicultural Research

A body of studies designed to compare and
contrast of racial and ethnic minority groups
within cultures.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin