PSYCHOLOGY
Social Relations
Topics: prejudice,
aggression, conflict,
attraction, altruism,
peacemaking
General Objectives
Study research findings on prejudice,
aggression, conflict, attraction, altruism,
peacemaking
Identify factors that contribute to each
social relation
MODULE OBJECTIVES
After completing their study of this module, students should be able to:

1.
Describe the social, emotional, and cognitive factors that contribute to the persistence
of cultural, ethnic, and gender prejudice and discrimination.

2.
Describe the impact of biological factors, aversive events, and learning experiences on
aggressive behavior.

3.
relationships.

4.
Discuss the effects of pornography and violent video games on social attitudes and
Explain how social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict.

5.
Describe the influence of proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity on
interpersonal attraction.

6.
Explain the impact of physical arousal on passionate love, and discuss how
companionate love is nurtured by equity and self-disclosure.

7.
Describe and explain the bystander effect, and explain altruistic behavior in terms of
social exchange theory and social norms.

8.
conflict.
Discuss effective ways of encouraging peaceful cooperation and reducing social
Module Objective
 1. Describe the social,
emotional, and cognitive factors that
contribute to the persistence of
cultural, ethnic, and gender prejudice
and discrimination.
What are the 3 general
roots of prejudice?
1. Social
2. Emotional
3. Cognitive
What are the 3 general
roots of prejudice?
1. Social inequalities
a) Ingroups & outgroups
b) Ingroup bias
3 general roots of
prejudice
2. Emotional
a) Scapegoat theory
3 general roots of
prejudice
3. Cognitive roots
Categorization
a) Vivid cases
b) Just-world Phenomenon
Social Relations
 Americans today express much less racial
and gender prejudice
Prejudice
Blatant down, subtle lingers
Research: pleasant words w/pictures of
faces, evaluating essays, shooting man in
Bronx, speeding tickets to minority,
women in poverty & w/out schooling
Fig 55.2 p. 727
Social Relations
 Does perception change with race?
Social Relations
 Prejudice (prejudgment)
 an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude
toward a group and its members
 involves stereotyped beliefs
 negative feelings
 a predisposition to discriminatory action
Prejudice
 Prejudgment colors our perception
 Stereotype
 a generalized (sometimes accurate, but often
overgeneralized) belief about a group of
people
 Ex. Overweight , Carnies, Athlete
 picture of whiteman shoving a black
man
Roots of Prejudice
 Why does prejudice arise?
1. Social Inequalities
a) Develop attitudes to justify - rationalize
inequalities
Ex. They are slaves because they are lazy,
irresponsible, & ignorant
b) Self-fulfilling prophecy
c) Blame the victim dynamic
Roots of Social Prejudice
Why does prejudice arise?
2. Social Division
What groups do you belong to?
a) Ingroup
“Us”- people with whom one shares a common
identity (cliques)
b) Outgroup
“Them”- those perceived as different or apart
from one’s ingroup
Social Division continued
c) Ingroup Bias
 tendency to favor one’s own group
 Dispised outgroups can boost ingroups
self esteem
 Feeling failure or insecurity? Restored by
disparaging a rival or another person
 Bully behavior
Roots of Emotional Prejudice
Why does prejudice arise?
3. Emotional roots
a) Scapegoat Theory
 theory that prejudice provides an outlet for
anger by providing someone to blame
 When things go wrong we look to blame
 Temporary frustration intensifies prejudice
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
4. Cognitive roots
a) Categorize
Stereotypes bias our perception
• Ex. Game on radio w/ black vs. white pict
Overestimate similarity with groups other than our own
• Ex. Penguins
b) Vivid Cases (available heuristic)
Tendency to judge frequency of events by instances
the readily come to mind
Social Relations
 Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
c. Just-World Phenomenon
 tendency of people to believe the world is
just
 people get what they deserve and deserve
what they get
 Good rewarded, Evil punished
also connected to Hindsight bias
Module Objective
2. Describe the impact of biological factors &
psychological factors such as aversive events,
and learning experiences on aggressive
behavior.
3. Discuss the effects of pornography and
violent video games on social attitudes and
relationships.
Stat
You have a lower chance of being
murdered if you live outside the U.S.
Why is the U.S. more prone to violence?
What is Aggression?
 Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended
to hurt or destroy
Biology of Aggression
1. Genetic Influences
Animals have been bred for aggression
Twin studies suggest gene influence also
2. Neural Influence
violent criminals have diminished activity in
frontal lobe
3. Biochemical Influences
Hormones - testosterone
Psychology of Aggression
1. Aversive Events
Frustration-Aggression Principle
principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to
achieve some goal – creates anger, which can
generate aggression
examples of aversive stimuli:
hot temp, physical pain, insult
Psychology of Aggression
2. Learned behavior

reinforcement for aggressive behavior

observation

social influence (lack of father)
Social Relations
Sexual Aggression &
media
What are the effects of pornography and
violent shows & video games on social
attitudes and relationships?
Research findings:
Identify a minimum of 5 effects based on
research - use your textbook
Sexual aggression in
media - research findings
1. Desensitization to cruelty
2. Primes aggressive behaviors - increases
aggressive thoughts, behaviors, & emotions
3. Increased acceptance of force/violence,
Sets a norm for behavior
4. Set social scripts - models of behavior
5. View spouse as less attractive
6. View friendliness as sexual
Sexual aggression in
media - research findings
Zillmann & Bryant research:
People who watched pornography were more
likely to give a rapist a lighter sentence
Dangerous social scripts are created
Social Relations
 Men who
are
sexually
coerce
women
Venting through video
games?
Catharsis hypothesis - the idea that we
feel better if we “blow off steam” by
venting our emotions
Research says - Expressing anger breeds
more anger……
Module Objective
4.
Explain how social traps
and mirror-image perceptions fuel
social conflict.
Social Relations
Conflict
 perceived incompatibility of actions,
goals, or ideas
 Ex. Former U.S.S.R. vs U.S., a couple
filling for divorce - Jen & Brad
 What social processes fuel conflict?
Or Social dilemmas?
Fuel for conflict
1. Social Trap
 a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each
rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught
in mutually destructive behavior
 Also known as TFT (Tit for tat) or non-zero-sum
game
 Ex. Ballot, whaling created endangered species,
nuclear proliferation, global warming due to fossil
fuels
Social Relations
Person 1
Person 2
Choose B
Choose A
Choose A
Choose B
Optimal
outcome
Probable
outcome
 Social trap
 by pursuing
our selfinterest and
not trusting
others, we can
end up losers
Princess Bride clip
Characters:
Fesik
Princess Buttercup
Dread Pirate (farmboy Wesley)
Fuel for conflict
2. Distorted perceptions
Enemy perceptions - distorted diabolical images,
demonization of the the other


Mirror image perceptions
ex. G. Bush vs. S. Hussein
both viewed each other as evil tyrants
Other that intensify conflict: Self-serving bias,
fundamental attribution error, stereotypes,
polarization, group think
 Ex. Cold War
Module Objectives
5. Describe the influence of proximity,
physical attractiveness, and similarity on
interpersonal attraction.
 6. Explain the impact of physical
arousal on passionate love, and discuss
how companionate love is nurtured by
equity and self-disclosure.
Attraction
 3 factors that influence like:
1. Proximity
 Mere Exposure Effect


repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases
liking of them
Ex. Mrs. Sauter married my neighbor
factors that influence like:
2. Physical attraction - appearance
Social opportunities
Perception
Ex. Love ET, safety in own features
3. Similarity
Breds contentment
Social RelationsAttractiveness
 Conceptions of attractiveness vary by
culture
Romantic Love
2 kinds of love
1. Passionate Love
an aroused state of intense positive
absorption in another; usually present
at the beginning of a love relationship
2. Companionate Love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for
those with whom our lives are
intertwined
Social Relations
These strengthen the bond
Equity
a condition in which people receive from a
relationship in proportion to what they give to
it
Self-Disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Module Objectives
7. Describe and explain the bystander effect,
and explain altruistic behavior in terms of
social exchange theory and social norms.
 8. Discuss effective ways of
encouraging peaceful cooperation and
reducing social conflict.
Being good
 Altruism
 unselfish regard for the welfare of others
 Ex. After 9/11 more good than bad
 Kitty Genovese case 1964 - violated this
concept, Why?
Social Relations
 Bystander Effect
 tendency for
any given
bystander to be
less likely to
give aid if other
bystanders are
present
Social Relations
 The decision-making process for
bystander intervention
Bystander effect
Situational factors - presence of others
Can lead to diffusion of responsibility
(people assume someone else took care of the
situation)
Ex. Mega mall - lost boy
Notice, Interpret, Assume responsibility
Doing good
Social Exchange Theory
 the theory that our social behavior is
an exchange process, the aim of
which is to maximize benefits and
minimize costs
 Reciprocity Norm - social norm that
people who help others will receive
equivalent benefits from these others in
return
Peacemaking
Superordinate Goals
 shared goals that override differences
among people and require their
cooperation
Ex. Sherrif’s example of boys working to
repair sewer system
Peacemaking
 Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives
in Tension-reduction (GRIT)
 a strategy designed to decrease
international tensions
 one side announces recognition of mutual
interests and initiates a small conciliatory act
 opens door for reciprocation by other party
 Ex. U.S. & former U.S.S.R. reduction of
nuclear weapons
Terms not in text on AP
exam
Central route to persuasion - the process by
which attitudes are formed or changed as a
result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about
the merits of attitude relevant information
Self-fulfilling prophecy - belief or explanation
that helps to bring about its own fulfillment
(expectancy effect)
Ethnocentrism - the tendency to reject and
malign other ethnic groups and their members
while gorifying one’s own group