CONCERN FOR OTHERS:
ORIGINS & DEVELOPMENT
Carolyn Zahn-Waxler, Ph.D.
University of Wisconsin - Madison
THEORY OF MORAL SENTIMENTS:
ADAM SMITH 1757
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Morality is not always calculating
Human beings are social creatures
Born with natural empathy
Concern for well-being of others is an essential
feature of morality
Empathy- understand other’s perspective &
have a visceral or emotional response
EARLY THEORIES:
Children Lack Moral Sense before Age 7
 Psychoanalytic
 Driven
by sexual and aggressive impulses
 Cognitive
 Egocentric---immature
 Unaware

cortex
of others’ perspectives
Sociobiological
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Human social nature is self-serving
DIFFERENT VIEWS ‘LEGITIMIZE’
CONSTRUCT OF EMPATHY
1. Evolutionary altruism – E.O.Wilson
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emphasis on group process
2. Empathy in mammals – Paul MacLean
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distress cries of offspring > maternal caregiving
limbic & prefrontal cortex – interconnections
3.Neuroscience –mirror neurons/emotional resonance
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wired to experience others emotions
EMPATHY/CARING FOR OTHERS:
CENTRAL ISSUES
Biology
Development
Environment
Nature and nurture interact
Adaptive/Maladaptive
CONCERN FOR OTHERS
A. AFFECT ---Empathic Emotions;
(face, voice, gesture)
B. BEHAVIOR ---Prosocial Actions
(helps, shares, comforts)
C. COGNITION --- Effort to Understand
(inquiries, ‘hypothesis-testing’)
BIOLOGICAL ORIGINS OF EMPATHY
Personal Distress
Concern
0-12 mos
12-18 mos
18 + mos
Personal Distress
Concern
?
0-12 mos
12-18 mos
18 + mos
LONGITUDINAL SAMPLES: 1-7 YRS
A. CONCERN FOR OTHERS (normative)
NIMH – singletons
Colorado – twins
Wisconsin- twins
B. CONCERN FOR OTHERS (risk)
Parental depression
Marital conflict
MULTIPLE METHODS:
Home and Laboratory
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Mothers trained as observers
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Structured probes---simulated distress
adults, peers, infants, animals
________________________________________
Maternal, teacher & child reports
Natural observations in lab (sibs, peers)
Mood inductions—physiological activity
Narratives—children’s representations
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Natural distresses observed and caused by child
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JULIE, 18 mos
A crying baby in a high chair threw away
his cookies. Julie (1) tried to return his
cookies. Mother then put baby in play pen
and Julie hovered over him there. She
began to (2) stroke his hair and (3) pat his
shoulders making (4) sympathetic, cooing
sounds. Next she went to (5) get her mother
from another room. leading her to the play
pen. Finally, she (6) took her mother’s hand
and placed it on top of the baby’s head. She
showed empathic concern throughout.
NIMH: PROSOCIAL ACTS
prosocial acts
0.5
0.4
Witness-real
Simulated
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
13-15
18-20
23-25
months
Zahn-Waxler et al. 1992
NIMH: EMPATHIC CONCERN
empathic concern
0.3
0.25
0.2
Witnessed-real
Simulated
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
13-15
18-20
23-25
months
Zahn-Waxler et al. 1992
hypothesis testing
NIMH: ‘HYPOTHESIS TESTING’
0.3
0.25
0.2
Witnessed-real
Simulated
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
13-15
18-20
23-25
months
Zahn-Waxler et al. 1992
Development of Concern:
Affective and Cognitive Forms
Knafo, Zahn-Waxler, et al., 2008
3
2.8
2.6
Concern
Hyp Test
2.4
2.2
2
14 months
20 months
24 months
36 months
DEVELOPMENTAL
REPLICATIONS
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Zahn-Waxler, et al. (2 samples) (1-2.5 yr olds)
Knafo, et al., 2008 (twin sample)(1-3 yr. olds)
Volbrecht, et al., 2007
(1.5-2 yr. olds)
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What about individual differences?
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Environment/parenting
 Temperament
 Genes
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Parenting Practices
Empathy
High
Empathy
High warmth
Low control
Low warmth
High control
14 mos
High warmth
Low control
Positive family climate
Empathy
Medium
Empathy
20 mos
Empathy
14 mos
Low
Empathy
20 mos
Low warmth
High control
Negative family climate
Low Control
High Control
14 mos
20 mos
Robinson et al. 1994
Child Temperament
Empathy
High
Empathy
High positivity,
sociability, &
negative affect
14 mos
High positivity &
sociability
Empathy
Medium
Empathy
14 mos
20 mos
Low positivity &
sociability
High positivity &
sociability
Empathy
Low
Empathy
20 mos
Low positivity &
sociability
Low positivity &
sociability
14 mos
20 mos
Robinson et al. 1994
CARING GROWS FROM 1-2 YEARS
Roth-Hanania, Davidov, & Zahn-Waxler, 2011
INFANTS’ CONCERN FOR OTHERS
CHILDREN of DEPRESSED MOTHERS:
2-4 yr olds Prosocial to Mother
3
prosocial acts
2.5
2
Girls
Boys
1.5
1
0.5
0
Well mothers
Depressed mothers
Zahn-Waxler & Radke-Yarrow
responses to conflict
CONCERN FOR OTHERS:
Toddlers’ response to parent conflict
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Anger
Distress
Prosocial
Low Conflict
High Conflict
Cummings et al.
CONCLUSIONS
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Empathy is present in first years of life
Continuities/discontinuities across development
Biological and environmental contributions to
individual differences in children’s empathic
concern and prosocial behavior
Many ways in which concern for others may
become compromised ---surfeits and deficits
that interfere with the quality of children’s lives.
New Directions
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Basic research
Neural underpinnings in first year of life
 Developing literature on the social brain
 Interactions of parenting, genes, and epigenetic
factors (Knafo, et al; Davidov, et al.)
 Early plasticity/malleability plus socialization lit.
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Opportune period of development for
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Interventions that incorporate positive socialization
practices with mindfulness-based parenting
COLLABORATORS
Ronald Iannotti
Carol Van Hulle
Paul Hastings
Michelle Volbrecht
Soo Rhee
Dale Hay
Michael Chapman
Robert King
Hill Goldsmith
Brett Haberstick
Sharee Light
Shari Young
Pamela Cole
Ronit Roth- Hanania
Nathan Fox
Mark Cummings
Marian Radke-Yarrow
Ariel Knafo
Robert Emde
JoAnn Robinson
Barbara Usher
Elizabeth Shirtcliff
Maayan Davidov
Thanks for Your Attention!