Module 29
模組29
Human-animal interactions
人與動物的互動關係
This module will enable you to
此模組將使你
• Understand the variety of interactions that people
have with animals明瞭人與動物互動的各種方式
• Appreciate cultural and historical variations in the
popularity of companion animals領悟歷史文化演變在
伴侶動物普及化中擔任的角色
• Understand the conflicts that arise in people’s
interactions with different kinds of animals了解人與各
種動物互動時會引發的衝突
• Critically assess evidence concerning links between
cruelty to animals and cruelty to people用批判眼光評
價虐待動物與虐待人之間的關聯跡象
Human-animal interactions
人與動物之互動(方式)
• Companion animals伴侶動物
• Utility animals役用動物
• Wild animals (not addressed in this
module, see modules 21 and 23-26)野生動物
(將不會此模組討論，詳見模組21及23-26)
Companion animals伴侶動物
Utility animals 役用動物
Wild animals野生動物
Why do people keep pets?
人為何要養寵物?
• Companionship伴侶
• Nurturance養育
– Opportunity to give care給予照顧的機會
• Neoteny幼態成熟
• Fashion/status時尚和地位
• Collection因喜愛而收集
Courtesy Dr N. Rooney
University of Bristol
Companion animals are universal
伴侶動物最為普遍
Why do we interact with animals?
人類為何要和動物互動?
Humans are social,
emotional beings
with a strong need
to communicate and
empathise with
others人類是社會性
的、有著強烈需求與
他人溝通和產生共鳴
的情感族群
Species popularity受歡迎的物種
Domestic dogs and many cats are highly social and reciprocate
interactions with humans馴養的狗和許多貓皆高度社會化並且與人
類產生良好的互動關係
Conflicting views of animals
衝突的動物觀點
• Serpell (1986):
While developing affectionate relationships with
companion animals is a natural and universal
phenomenon…和伴侶動物發展親密的關係是自然且
普遍的現象
…humans are also motivated to use and kill
animals, especially for meat, a highly valuable
food source人類也有動機去利用並且宰殺動物特別是
為了肉、高價值的食物資源
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
認知不協調理論
People experience unpleasant feelings of
‘cognitive dissonance’ if they hold conflicting
views or motivations. They will change their
behaviour or their attitudes to avoid or overcome
dissonance人若有衝突之看法或動機，會有「認知不協
調」的不愉快感覺。此時他們將改變行為或改變態度以避
開或克服此不協調之狀態。 (Festinger 1957)
Dissonance 1: Ritual
不協調1: 儀式
• To win the “approval” of the hunted animal, subsistence hunters
often observe rituals:為了贏得被獵殺動物的“同意”，以狩獵維生的
獵人時常會遵守以下儀式:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Dietary and sexual abstinence狩獵前後的禁食與禁慾
Ritual purification以儀式潔淨
Speaking respectfully of prey提及獵物的時候言語尊敬
Apologising to slain animal對獵殺之動物道歉
Ceremonial treatment of carcass以儀式處理屠體
Ritual disposal of unusable remains以儀式處理剩餘之肉
Avoidance of waste不浪費
Dissonance 2: Separation
不協調處理2: 區隔
• New Guinea Highlands新幾內亞高地
– Women raise pigs, men kill and eat them女人飼養豬,
男人屠宰豬隻作食用
• Modern urban culture:現代城鎮文化:
– Raising and slaughtering meat animals done by
tiny proportion of population少部分的人口從事飼養和宰
殺動物工作
• Japan日本
– Separate group (Burakumin) were butchers and
leatherworkers. Still stigmatised today獨立族群
(Burakumin)擔任屠宰和製革工作。到今日仍然被歧視。
Dissonance 3: Objectification
不協調處理3: 物化
• Book of Genesis創世紀
– Man has dominion over every living thing
人為萬物的主宰
• Aristotle亞里斯多德
– Natural hierarchy, with men at pinnacle,
above women & the rest of creation人是權
力的頂點，勝過其他的被造物
• Thomas Aquinas湯姆斯
– Only humans possess rational souls唯人有
理性
– All animals were created in order to serve
humanity動物都是為服事人而被造
The emergence of modern pet-keeping
寵物照顧現代化
• Increasing affluence經濟富裕成長
• Urbanisation of populations城市生活人口
What effects do pets have?
寵物對人類有何影響?
• Effects on human health影響人類健康
• Social effects影響社交能力
• Effects on attitudes to animals
影響對動物的態度
Attitude effects 1
態度效應1 (Serpell 1981)
80
70
60
Number 50
of people40
人數 30
20
10
0
Childhood pets 幼年時養寵物
No childhood 幼年時不養寵物
pets
Owners/potential
owners
Non-owners
Attitude effects 2
態度效應 2(Paul & Serpell 1993)
30
25
% belonging 20
to animal
15
welfare
Organisations
10
%加入動保組織
5
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8+
Number of pets owned in childhood
幼年時代擁有寵物之數目
Humane education
人道教育
‘The expanding circle of compassion’
關愛的漸進擴展: 從寵物到動物到人類
Pets寵物
All animals所有動物
People人類
Is cruelty to animals and to humans
linked?對動物殘忍與對人殘忍是否有關?
Two possible associations
二種可能的相關性
Graduation hypothesis
畢業假說
• Child who is cruel to
animals虐待動物的兒童
• ‘Graduates’ to harming
people in adulthood”在
成年後發展(畢業)至對人
傷害
Co-occurrence hypothesis
同步發生說
• Animal abuse co-occurs
with child abuse/wife
battering?虐待動物和虐待
兒童/虐妻同時發生?
• Animal neglect co-occurs
with child/self neglect?忽
視動物和遺棄兒童/自己同
時發生?
Research methods研究方法
• Case studies of infamous serial killers研究不著名的連續殺人
案例
• Retrospective interviews with aggressive and nonaggressive criminals 回顧性訪問具有攻擊性與不具攻擊性罪
犯
• Retrospective interviews with students 回顧性訪問學生
• Problems: Self reports may be misremembered or
fabricated 問題: 自我報告可能會記錯或捏造
Evidence for ‘Graduation’
hypothesis“畢業假說”之證據
• ‘Graduation’ from animals to humans not yet proven
由傷害動物‘畢業’ 至傷害人還未被證實
• Extreme child cruelty to animals contributes to a
diagnosis of conduct disorder虐待動物的偏激兒童是
行為障礙的診斷因子
• Conduct disorder can precede adult diagnoses of
severe and anti-social personality disorder
(psychopathy)行為障礙可能在成年後嚴重反社會性人
格疾病(精神病態)發生之前出現
• Aggressive children harm animals and humans有攻
擊性的兒童會傷害動物和人
Evidence for Co-occurrence
hypothesis“同步發生假說”之證據
• Case studies and interviews suggest a link between
abuse/neglect of animals and abuse/neglect of
children個案研究和訪談顯示虐待/遺棄動物和虐待/遺
棄兒童之間之相關性
• However, abuse of animals may not always spill over
into abuse of humans (and vice versa)然而虐待動物
並不一定會造成虐待人類(反之亦然)
• What is needed: Professional vigilance (e.g. vets),
more data collection, further research應該怎麼作：
（加強）專業人士之警覺性（如獸醫師）、收集更多
數據資料、進一步的研究
However…然而
•
Institutionalised or socially
sanctioned animal cruelty is less
likely to generalise to
cruelty/violence towards humans
慣性或社會認可下的傷害動物（屠宰場）
並不歸納被視為會傷害人類或使用暴力
•
People who abuse animals alone are
most likely to be a danger to others
會獨自傷害虐待動物的人最有可能對其他人
構成危險
Conclusions結論
• Humans have many different interactions with
animals人與動物的互動關係種類繁多
• The human-animal relationship in modern society
most commonly involves companion animals在現代
社會最普遍的人畜關係經常與伴侶動物有關
• Companion animals have many functions and effects
伴侶動物用途廣泛，影響深遠
• Cognitive dissonance arises from conflict between
affectionate and utilitarian relationships with animals
人與動物的親密關係與利用關係互相衝突時，就會導
致認知上的不協調
Conclusions結論
• Caring for pets may lead to greater compassion for
other animals and even humans關懷動物會引發更多
對其他動物甚至人類的惻隱之心
• Cruelty to animals can be associated with abuse and
violence towards other humans虐待動物可以與傷害
他人和施行暴力有關
Further Reading進階閱讀
•
•
•
•
•
•
American Psychiatric Association 1994 Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual, vol 4.
Arluke AB. 1988 Sacrificial symbolism in animal experimentation:
Object or pet? Anthrozoos, 11, 98-117
Arluke A, Levin J, Luke C & Ascione F. 1999 The relationship of animal
abuse to violence and other forms of antisocial behaviour. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 14,963-975
Arluke AB. 1988 Sacrificial symbolism in animal experimentation:
Object or pet? Anthrozoos, 11, 98-117
Basso CB. 1973 The Kalapalo Indians of Central Brazil. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston
Duncan A & Miller C. 2002: The impact of an abusive family context on
childhood animal cruelty and adult violence. Aggression and Violent
Behaviour, 7, 365-383.
• Festinger LA. 1957 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford,
C.A.: Stanford University Press.
Further Reading進階閱讀
•
•
•
•
Fisher MP. 1983 Of pigs and dogs: Pets as produce in three societies.
In Katcher AH & Beck AM. (Eds.) New Perspectives on Our Lives with
Companion Animals. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
(pp. 132-137)
Kellert S & Felthous A. 1985 Childhood cruelty toward animals among
criminals and non-criminals. Human Relations, 18, 113-1129
Paul ES. 2000 Empathy with animals and with humans: Are they linked?
Anthrozoos, 14, 194-202
Paul ES & Serpell JA. 1993 Childhood pet keeping and humane
attitudes in young adulthood. Animal Welfare, 2, 321-337
• Podberscek AL, Paul ES & Serpell JA. 2000 Companion
Animals and Us: Exploring the Relationships Between Pets and
People. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
•
Serpell JA. 1981 Childhood pets and their influence on adults’ attitudes.
Psychological Reports, 49, 651-654.
Further Reading進階閱讀
• Serpell J & Paul E. 1994 Pets and the development of positive
attitudes to animals. In Manning A & Serpell J. (Eds.): Animals
and Human Society. London: Routledge.
• Serpell JA. 1986 In the Company of Animals Oxford: Blackwell
• Serpell J. (Ed) 1995 The Domestic Dog: its evolution, behaviour
and interactions with people. Cambridge University Press
• Thomas K. 1983 Man and the Natural World: Changing attitudes
in England, 1500-1800. London: Allen Lane.
• Turner DC & Bateson P. (Eds) 2000 The Domestic Cat. The
biology of its behaviour (2nd edition). Cambridge University
Press
Resources資源
• National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.
Understanding the links: child abuse, animal abuse and domestic
violence. Information for professionals.
http://www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/Research/Findings/UnderstandingTh
eLinks_asp_ifega26207.htmlformation for professionals
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Information for
Prosecutors, Police Officers, Magistrates and Judges. PETA
Research and Education Foundation, London, UK