Introduction to Community
Psychology: Research and
Action in Communities
Prof. Douglas D. Perkins, Ph.D.
with Nikolay Mihaylov, M.A.
Program in Community Research & Action
Dept. of Human & Organizational Development
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee, USA
d.perkins@vanderbilt.edu
My homepage: https://my.vanderbilt.edu/perkins/
U.S.A.
*U. of Utah
*NYU
*Philadelphia: Swarthmore
Washington, DC *
College & Temple U.
*Vanderbilt U. (Nashvillle,
Tennessee)






I was born in Washington, DC
I attended Swarthmore College near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
My Masters & Ph.D. are in Community Psychology from New York
University in New York City
My first academic job was in a Department of Criminal Justice at
Temple University in Philadelphia
In 1989, I moved to a faculty position in Family, Consumer &
Community Studies and in Psychology at the University of Utah in Salt
Lake City
My current position, since 2000, is in Community Research & Action in
the Department of Human & Organizational Development at Peabody
College of Education & Human Development, Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee.
SUMMARY






I will introduce & define the field of Community Psychology (CP)
I will then explain historically why it developed as psychologists
were called on to help solve problems outside of clinics &
institutions in communities, schools, organizations, and society
I will present some of CP’s major concepts, theories and areas
& types of application
I will highlight education-based youth development programs
as one major area of CP research, innovation & application
I will conclude by briefly discussing the international growth of
CP, & let’s discuss its potential in Bulgaria.
For a Bulgarian presentation of community psychology, see:
• Михайлов, Н. (2011). Психология отвъд индивида и проблема:
Обзор на общностната психология като изследователска и
приложна област и нейните възможности в България. Българско
списание по психология, 3/4/2001, 393-398. Достъпно на
http://psychological.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/sbornikpapers.pdf
Psychology is mainly focused at the individual
level, but through Community Psychology, it is
very useful for interventions at many other levels:

Examples:
• Prevention programs & health promotion uses
psychology to help children & families in poor
communities, schools, & the whole society.
• Mutual aid groups & existing social support networks
help groups & families.
• Organizational development & creation of new,
alternative settings addresses problems of
institutions.
• Community needs & assets assessment, community
development, policy analysis, & social action help to
improve villages, neighborhoods, cities & society.
What is the definition of
“COMMUNITY”?


“A group of people who interact and share certain things as a
group…in which intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks
and a number of other conditions may be present and common,
affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of
adhesion.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community
"Community is a social grouping (e.g., a nurturing family, a
nourishing church, a supportive peer group or neighborhood, a
compassionate school, a hospice, a reflective-generative
professional relationship) that promotes human development.“ (In
Dokecki, P. R. (1996). The tragicomic professional: Basic considerations for ethical
reflective-generative practice, p.134)


Community as either locality-based [geographic] or relational
[shared interest]
As a former Socialist country, Bulgaria is arguably a more
communal society than the U.S., which makes CP a good
fit for this country
Definitions of Community
Psychology:

“the psychological study & solution of
community, social & mental health
problems”
OR

“the applied study of the relationship
between social systems & individual
well-being in community context”
Initial Themes of Community
Psychology

Contexts of human welfare
• Starting with problems of institutions

Social justice: to help those who need the
most help, including the powerless &
victims of oppression in all its forms
Tenets or Themes of Community
Psychology, continued:


Synergy of:
research
theory
action
an ‘action’ orientation, i.e. social innovation, change,
& evaluation.
• "real world" utility of applied research (e.g., program or
policy evaluations) in community and organizational
settings, not "ivory tower" laboratory
• “praxis”: the process of translating an intellectual idea,
theory, or lesson into the lived reality of practice,
action, and experience.
More Themes of Community
Psychology:

1st-order change is just change in part of a
system (e.g., individual change)
CP is more concerned with:
 2nd-order change: fundamental systemlevel change (e.g., in its structure or goals)
rd
 “3 -order change”? (Bess): transformative
change in values & identity
Community Psychology helps you see the
world ecologically (as an interconnected
system; Bronfenbrenner, 1996)

Ontogenetic/Demo-system: individual level of
development (primary focus of traditional
psychology)

Microsystem & Mesosystem (see below)

Exosystem: community environment
Macrosystem: societal level
(politics, economics, mass culture)

Microsystem: immediate social environment (family,
classroom, peer group);
Mesosystem: relational links between microsystems (eg,
work influence on personal life)

Other emphases of ecological theory:
• person-environment fit: change the setting, or find right setting, to fit the person
• multiple levels of analysis & intervention
• dynamic, naturalistic process
Ecological Research Methods
(Example: Perkins, D.D., & Taylor, R.B. (1996). Ecological assessments of
community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical
implications. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 63-107. (Reprinted
in Revenson et al. (Eds.)(2002), Ecological research to promote social change: Methodological advances
from community psychology. (pp. 127-170). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.):
1. Multiple measures and “mixed” (quantitative & qualitative)
methods (sources of data) to cross-validate/triangulate:
•Direct (systematic or participatory) observation: Block
Environmental Inventory
•Resident (or Organization Member or Leader) Survey
•Open-ended or semi-structured interviews
•Content analysis (e.g., of crime-related media stories)
•Archival data (e.g., organizational records, police crime reports)
•Census and other large sample surveys
2. Focused on Context at Multiple Levels:
•Individual
•Individual Relative to Group
•Aggregate + truly contextual units (Organization, Community)
•Multilevel Analysis (eg, HLM, Contextual Analysis, GIS)
3. Over Time:
•Longitudinal designs, time series analysis
Social behavior must be understood ecologically (how we
actually & naturally live): in organic/systemic groups,
organizations, communities...
Branch of science
Economics/Poli.Sci.
Sociology/Anthropology
Traditional Psychology
(incl. Social Psych.)
Biology/Chemistry/Physics
atoms
CP
OS
MY
MC
UH
NO
I L
TO
YG
Y
Level of analysis
states, nations, cities
institutions
cultures/ethnic groups
communities,
organizations,
groups: families, households
events, social interactions
individuals
organs, cells, molecules,
Beware problems of: "reductionism" (bias toward most simple &
scientifically controlled answer) & "ecological fallacy” (generalizing
More Themes of Community
Psychology:


CP challenges traditional modes of
thought and authority: healthy
skepticism of established “truths”, the
powerful, & “experts”.
CP values the phenomenological
“expertise” of nonprofessionals & so
approaches helping through
collaboration, not as “the expert with
all the answers”
Values of Community Psychology:

CP acknowledges our humanity & thus our
values:
• Positivism is dishonest in pretending to be valuefree (all humans, including scientists, have & act
on their values)

CP values & promotes individual, community &
cultural:
•
•
•
•
•
•
diversity
equality
human rights
justice
freedom
dignity
4 Key Community Psychology
Values/Concepts:
“SPEC”: Strengths
Prevention
Empowerment
Changing Community Conditions
Strengths
• Emphasizes developing people's & communities' strengths,
assets, & competencies rather than labeling, blaming, &
stigmatizing individuals’ weaknesses, handicaps, pathology
• Limitations/critique of “medical model”; borrows more from
public health promotion and human & community development
4 Key Community Psychology
Concepts, continued:
“SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment,
Changing Community Conditions
Prevention
• CP intervenes earlier in the problem development
process to be both more effective & more efficient:

crisis intervention -> early detection & intervention > primary prevention
• More on prevention in a minute
4 Key Community Psychology
Concepts, continued:
“SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment,
Changing Community Conditions
Empowerment
• “voice & choice”
• people participating in and taking control over the
institutions that affect their lives; professionals &
scientists as partners or collaborators, not experts.
[More on Empowerment in a minute]
4 Key Community Psychology
Concepts, continued:
“SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment,
Changing Community Conditions
Changing Community Conditions
• CP gets at root causes of problems by addressing the
underlying community conditions (again, rather than
traditional psychology’s tendency to always identify the
source of problems within individuals, their genes, brain
patterns, child-rearing, cognitions, psychopathology, or
behavior)

Later, I will apply these ideas, especially prevention & a
focus on community environments, in a comprehensive
stress & intervention guiding model for CP
Empowerment is 1 of 4 Dimensions of Individuallevel Social Capital:
Formal & Informal Community Cognitions &
Behaviors (from Perkins & Long, 2002)
Cognition/Trust
Social Behavior
Type of Social
Ties
Informal
Sense of
community
Neighboring
Bonding
Formally
Organized
Collective efficacy
/ empowerment
Citizen
participation
Bridging
Let us briefly consider each of the 4 concepts…
sense of community:
a widely valued indicator of quality of community life

a consistent catalyst for both behavioral dimensions of social
capital: organized participation & informal neighboring

linked with empowerment in both organizations &
neighborhoods
Other correlates:

community satisfaction, local friendships, & informal social
control

residential social climate & well-being

investment in one’s home

the physical condition of one’s block

more life satisfaction & less loneliness

less fear of crime

common land, green space, & town planning (New Urbanism)
 organization & activities of schools

places to congregate outside of school

possibly: life-long commitments to community & community
service
Any possible downside to sense of community?

Neighboring behavior (informal
behavior cell of Figure)





informal mutual assistance: instrumental &
informational help we provide, or get from, other
community members--e.g., watching a neighbor’s
house or child, loaning some food or a tool, sharing
information, social interaction, etc.
facilitates forming voluntary associations
related to sense of community & other bonding
variables (communitarianism & community satisfaction)
strongest single predictor of participation in community
organizations across multiple cities & studies
especially important for disenfranchised [Prezza et al.
(2001) found that women & those w/ more children &
less education rely more on neighboring relationships.]
Citizen participation: formal
behavioral dimension in 2X2 model


participants in community councils, block,
neighborhood, tenant or homeowner associations, &
other local resident groups have more:
• empowerment
• sense of community
• neighboring
• community satisfaction & other positive
community attachments & organizational bridging
activities
community organizations address a variety of local
needs:
• planning & traffic issues
• park cleanups & community gardens
• youth & recreation programs & block parties
Why are so many social change
movements started & often led by
students & other young people?




Early childhood is about learning what IS.
Middle childhood is about also learning what OUGHT
to be.
Late adolescence is about also learning what CAN be
and trying to make that happen. (Adolescence is a
developmental stage of growing independence and
challenging authority.)
youth civic engagement has both short- & longterm benefits for youth and for society:
• Higher youth psychological well-being,
• Higher youth academic achievement,
• Contributions to the social & political fabric of the country,
including the promotion of civil society
Collective efficacy (or empowerment; formalcognition cell of 2X2 model)
Perkins (2010). Empowerment. In R.A. Couto (Ed.), Political and Civic
Leadership
Empowerment defined:
 “trust” or belief in the effectiveness of organized
community action;
 Or a process by which people gain control over their
lives, democratic participation in the life of their
community (Rappaport, 1987), and a critical
understanding of their environment (Zimmerman,
1992).
 Must mean more than the individual psychological
constructs with which it is sometimes compared or
confused (e.g., self-esteem, self-efficacy,
competency, locus of control)
• I.E., it is at core a collective construct
 Role of “mediating structures” in empowerment
(Berger & Neuhaus, 1977)
Community Psychology as a
“Paradigm Shift”



"paradigm": theoretical or methodological
model, or a conventionally accepted way of
looking at, understanding, or doing things
"paradigm shifts" caused by faith, values,
& politics, esp. in social sciences & human
services
Scientific progress is not linear (Kuhn):
The "Progressive" View of The History
of Mental Health Care

4 Revolutions in MH Care --> (population
encompassed)
1.
Pinel, Dix & "Moral Treatment" (1800) -------> (psychotics)
2.
Freud & insanity continuum (1900) ---------> (neurotics)
3.
Community MH Centers (1963) --> (victims of social
pathology)
4.
Milestone Primary Prevention (1970s, 1980s) ---->
(everyone)
The "Revisionist" View of the
History of Mental Health Care

Revisionist history shows inconsistent
progress & a more cyclical pattern of reform
& concern over environmental causes (e.g.,
during settlement house movement) alternate
with periods of conservative retrenchment &
intra-psychic or moralistic determinism
(Levine & Levine, 1970), i.e., approach to
solving social & mental health problems
related to political climate of the times
The "Revisionist" View of the
History of Mental Health Care #2

Limited effectiveness of many therapies

Poor are more likely to receive "physical"
treatments & neglect (Grobb, 1973; Hollingshead &
Redlich, 1958)


cyclical patterns in history: periods of genetic,
intra-psychic &/or cultural determinism &
tendency to "oversell" new treatments & policies as
panaceas (or cure-all "fads")
poor & "deviant" removed from society in 1600s,
1800s, 1950s & today--for whose "protection"?
(Erikson, 1966: Wayward Puritans)
For 400 years, "deviants” have
been removed from society,
most w/ little or no treatment (even
medication):

# of mentally ill inmates in U.S. prisons & jails > quadrupled
1998-2006 to 1.25 million!
 Rate of mental
disorders is 5 X
greater in prison
(>56% [73% for
women] vs. 11% for
gen. adult
population);
seriously mentally
ill almost 10 X more
likely to be in prison
than hospital!
 USA incarcerate
highest % of
population in world.
Conclusions about the history of
Mental Health Care





social change made old approaches to mental health
care inadequate
ideology determined treatment laws
economic & political concerns stopped humane
efforts & led to "warehousing"
legal, economic, & political factors continue to shape
the changes in mental health care
From both historical perspectives (Progressive &
Revisionist), the history of mental health care points
to need for prevention & more humane treatment &
"empowerment" of the broadest variety of
disadvantaged populations.
One possible guiding framework for CP: A model of the process whereby
psychosocial stress induces psychopathology and some conceptions of how
to counteract this process (Dohrenwend, 1978).
Community &
Organizational
Development
Political
Action
Situation
In
Environment
Situational Mediators,
Material Supports or Handicaps,
Social Supports or Handicaps
Transient
Stress
Reaction
Stressful
Life
Event
Psychological
Characteristics of
Person in Event
General
Education &
Socialization
Psychological
Growth
No Substantial
Permanent
Psychological Change
Psychological Mediators,
Aspirations and Values,
Coping Abilities/Disabilities
Individual
Skill
Training
PsychoPathology
Crisis
Intervention
Corrective
Therapies
Classroom exercise (discuss in pairs):
Describe a major or minor stressful life event you have
experienced [anything you don’t mind discussing].
2.
What were the personal factors [personality, resilience, skills,
knowledge, habits, needs, etc.] that led to the event or helped or
hindered your stress response?
3.
What were the environmental factors [social/people, physical,
cultural, political, economic…] that caused the stress &/or added to
it?
4.
What was the outcome of the event and its negative &/or positive
impact on you?
Opportunities for Intervention Based on Above & Dohrenwend model:
1.
Did you receive any “crisis intervention” of any kind? Did/would it
help?
2.
How could you have coped with, or adapted to, the stress
psychologically or behaviorally?
3.
What kinds of social or material supports might have helped you
cope with the stress situation? Were they available to you?
4.
Do you have any personal psychological characteristics that
increased the likelihood of the stressful event? What kind of
intervention could address those characteristics to prevent the
event?
5.
What situation in the environment increased the risk of the
stressful event? How could that have been prevented?
1.
Types or Levels of Prevention (Caplan; Gofrit et al)
1.
Primary Prevention: intervention given to an entire population
when they are not in a condition of known need or distress
• water fluoridation, vaccinations
• What are some examples of primary prevention of mental or social
problems?
-improvements in schools? changes in media “messages”?
-what else?
Secondary Prevention:

Early identification & intervention: given to
populations showing early signs of difficulty
• at risk for developing more serious problems
• counseling those showing conflict or distress
(school, work, academic achievement, etc.)


"early intervention" can be taken 2 ways: (1)
early in the development of the disorder or
(2) early in the lifespan (childhood or even
pre- & peri-natal)
Examples:
• Early detection & prevention of school adjustment
problems in kindergarten-4th graders (Cowen et
al, 1979)
• Bullying interventions for both bullies & victims
(Nation, 2007)
Tertiary Prevention:



rehabilitation for those who have a disorder,
with the intention of limiting the disability
caused by the disorder, reducing its intensity
and duration, or the likelihood of a relapse
Tertiary also helps prevent problems for
those who provide support for or interact
regularly with the targets of the
intervention
Examples?
- intensive “wrap-around” services & case
management for homeless
- professional home visits to support care
givers of people w/ serious mental illness
IS tertiary “prevention” really prevention?
Slightly different framework emphasizing
primary & early secondary prevention
(Institute of Medicine; Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994)
1.
2.
3.
“community wide” or Universal Prevention:
good for everyone, given to populations that are not
in distress (the most “primary” form)
"milestone" (at critical developmental or life
transition points) or Selective Preventive
Measures: for people at above average risk
(primary, but identification/selection moves it closer
to 2ndary)
Indicated Preventive Measures: given to “high
risk” individuals (often equated w/ 2ndary, but
depends: if “high risk” is based just on env. factors:
primary; if based on actual diagnosis or problem
behavior: 2ndary)
Prevention across the lifespan



Programs for early childhood: Parenting
(e.g., "Baby your baby," "Success by 6") and
problem-solving
Programs for adolescents: Resistance skills
(e.g., Life Skills Training to prevent smoking;
improving social climate of schools for
bullying prevention)
Programs for adults: Social support (eg,
Widow-to-Widow or home visitation for
parents of schizophrenics-- see mutual
aid/self-help groups)
“Compensatory” Preschool Ed. &
Enrichment for Disadvantaged Lowincome Children

Major example: Project Head Start
• Started in 1965;
• spread to almost all poor communities in USA;
• 1 of biggest & longest social programs
• Mission statement: "Head Start promotes school
preparation by enhancing the social & cognitive
development of children through the provision of
educational, health, nutritional, social & other
services.”
• Head Start improves children’s self esteem,
confidence, maturity, and social adjustment.
• Some programs provide free medical & dental care &
nutrition
Many Head Start programs have shown academic
results that are limited or fade over time.
But high-quality programs have shown strong, robust,
& lasting results
[Long-term Follow-up Evaluation of Perry Preschool Head Start,
Ypsilanti,Michigan]:
Those who received preschool training more likely to:
1. graduate from high school,
2. obtain post-secondary academic or vocational training,
3. be employed,
4. earn higher wages,
5. avoid welfare assistance,
6. avoid criminal arrest, &
7. avoid teenage pregnancy.
Cost-efficiency:
Net savings to society: $25,000 per child (in 1984).
Economic benefit-to-cost ratio: $7 saved for every $1 spent.
The “Positive Youth Development”
Approach To Prevention



“Generally speaking, positive youth development encompasses all our
hopes & aspirations for a nation of healthy, happy, & competent
adolescents on their way to productive & satisfying adulthoods” (Roth
& Brooks-Gunn, 2003, p. 170).
Research shows “the same individual, family, school, and community
factors often predict both positive and negative outcomes for youth.
Such factors as developing strong bonds with healthy adults and
maintaining regular involvement in positive activities not only create a
positive developmental pathway, but can prevent the occurrence of
problems.” (Catalano et al, 2004, p. 98)
“In addition to enhancing children’s competencies, many school-based
(Social, and Emotional Learning) programs focus on topics such as
substance-abuse prevention, violence prevention, sexuality, health,
and character education. Some also foster safe, caring, and supportive
learning environments that build strong student attachment to school
and motivation to learn, factors strongly associated with academic
success” (Weissberg & O'Brien, 2004, p. 89).
The 5 (or 6?) ”Cs” of PYD (Lerner et al, 2000)
“Lerner et al summarize the ingredients of positive youth
development into the five Cs:
(a) competence in academic, social, & vocational areas;
(b) confidence or a positive self-identity;
(c) connections to community, family, & peers;
(d) character or positive values, integrity, & moral commitment;
(e) caring & compassion.
[Many researchers have added a critical “6th C” of PYD:
(f) contribution to family, community, & civil society]
Resources in families, schools, communities, & the nation envelop
youth with the experiences & supports they need to develop these
qualities. The Search Institute delineated 40 internal & external
assets... The 4 categories grouping the 20 external
supports…summarize the fundamental resources for positive
development: support, empowerment, boundaries &
expectations, & constructive use of time. Put another way,
youth need access to safe places, challenging experiences, &
caring people on a daily basis” (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003, pp.
What works in school-based social and emotional
learning programs for positive youth development
“Ideally, programming to foster social and emotional competencies should
begin in preschool and continue through high school. Recently, the
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)
identified a core set of 5 teachable competencies that provide a foundation
for effective development:
1. Self-awareness: knowing what we are feeling and thinking; having a
realistic assessment of our own abilities and a well-grounded sense of selfconfidence;
2. Social awareness: understanding what others are feeling and
thinking; appreciating and interacting positively with diverse groups;
3. Self-management: handling our emotions so they facilitate rather
than interfere with task achievement; setting and accomplishing goals;
persevering in the face of setbacks and frustrations;
4. Relationship skills: establishing and maintaining healthy and
rewarding relationships based on clear communication, cooperation,
resistance to inappropriate social pressure, negotiating solutions to
conflict, and seeking help when needed; and
5. Responsible decision making: making choices based on an accurate
consideration of all relevant factors and the likely consequences of
alternative courses of action, respecting others, and taking responsibility
for one’s decisions” (Weissberg & O'Brien, 2004, p. 89).
Irony? Community Psychology developed first & most fully in
those countries that needed it least: Here are the countries in
historical order where CP developed [or is beginning to]:
See any pattern?
THANK YOU! QUESTIONS?
KEY SOURCES:
Online Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice (2010): http://www.gjcpp.org/en/
Catalano, Richard F., Berglund, M. Lisa, Ryan, Jean A. M., Lonczak, Heather S., & Hawkins, J.
David. (2004). Positive Youth Development in the United States: Research Findings on
Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs. Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, 591(Jan), 98-124.
Lerner, R.M., et al. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth
development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: findings
from the first wave of the 4-h study of positive youth development. Journal of Early
Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71.
Miller, R. L. & Shinn, M. (2005). Learning from communities: Overcoming difficulties in
dissemination of prevention & promotion efforts. American Journal of Community Psychology,
35, 169-183.
Nation, M., et al (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs.
American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 449-456.
Perkins, D. D. (2009). International community psychology: Development and challenges.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 44 (1), 76-79. (see rest of this special issue)
Reich, S. M., Riemer, M., Prilleltensky, I., & Montero, M. (Eds.)(2007). International community
psychology: History and theories. NY: Springer.
Roth, J.L. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003b). What exactly is a youth development program? Answers
from research and practice. Applied Developmental Science, 7, 94-111.
Weikart, D. P., & Schweinhart, L. J. (1997). High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. In G. W. Albee
& T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Primary prevention works. Issues in children's and families' lives, Vol.
6 (pp. 146-166). Sage
Weissberg, R.P., & O'Brien, M.U. (2004). What works in school-based social and emotional
learning programs for positive youth development. Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, 591, 86-97.