Leadership
Vessélina Tossan, EDC 2008-2009
1
Leader(ship) development from Scott
Snook
 On an individual paper, write down:
 Name
 1) What is this text about in maximum 10 lines?
 2) What are your carreer plans?
 3) Do you have a learning goal orientation or a
performance orientation (see p.18)?
 4) What was the most important developmental
experience in your life during last year including last
summer? Why?
2
Content
1.Defining leadership
2.Personality and behavior
3.Other definitions of leadership, leadership and management
4. The essence of leadership:trait and skill approach
5.Leadership and power
6. Behaviorial theories
7. Situational approaches
8.Transformational leadership
9. James March and leadership
10. Leadership and motivation
11. Leadership and communication
12. Leadership and influence
13. Leading change
3
Fieldwork write-up: choice of 1 subject.
paper to be submitted at the last session.
1)
Relying on a situation you experienced (at school, at a job or another
case)where a person had on you a form of leadership or occupied an
autority position you depended of, analyse, thanks to the concepts
of the course, the impact of this person on you, the reasons of
his(her) positive or negative influence and the consequences on you
and your action.
2)
You choose 2 persons managing a service or a company and you
interview them on different aspects of their job: leadership,
satisfactions, problems. You can also choose a leader and a follower
speaking about the way his (her) relationship with the
leader(followers) goes (they can be independent one from
eachother). The transcription of the interview has to be followed by a
comment using the concepts of the course to analyse and comment
what has been said.
4
1. Defining Leadership
- a personality perspective: a combination of special traits that individuals possess
and that induce others to accomplish tasks
- a behavior perspective: the things leaders do to bring about change in a group
-power relationship that exists between leaders and followers
- a transformational process that moves followers to accomplish more that what is
usually expected of them
- a skills perpective: knowledge and skills that make effective leadeship possible
5
Defining leadership
 In our textbook: Leadership is a process
whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal
 Influence=how the leader affects followers
 In groups: small task groups, a community
group, an entire organization
 Attention to goals: in contexts where
individuals are moving toward a goal
6
Trait versus process leadership
Trait definition of
leadreship
Process definition of
leadership
Leader
Leader
Height
Intelligence
Extraversion
Self-confidence
(interaction)
Followers
Followers
7
2. Personality and
behavior
8
2.1.What is personnality?
A set of individual factors more or less stable
that make an individual’s behaviors constant
in the long run and diffrent from behaviors
that other people may show in similar
situations (Child, Personnality in culture,
1968)
9
2.2.Diffrent movements explaining
personality and behavior
 Biology: innate factors
 Psychanalysis: personal history
 Sociology: cultural context, social
environment
 Cognitive psycholoy : learning
• Behaviorism:
situation
Personnality
Behavior
10
Big principles of psychanalysis
o A therapy and a theory of the mind
o Discovered the unconscious
o Personnality is a complex psychic system whose energy
emanates from two instincts: the instinct of life and the instinct of
death
o Freud(1896), Jung, Lacan
o Our personality is directly affected by the forgotten, repressed
events of our childhood
o Unveiling the unconscious allows to understand our sufferings and
behaviors
11
Principles of behaviorism
 Cares about behaviors that can be observed and
measured, not about mental states
 The base of human behaviors is conditionning
(learning by association of a stimulus and an answer)
 Ivan Pavlov, John B.Watson, Thorndike, Skinner
(stimulus, answer, consequence)
12
Principles of cognitive psychology
 In behavorist tradition; sees psychic facts as devices
of information processing.
 George Miller, Jerome Bruner
Behaviorism
Cognitive psychology
Methods
Observs behaviors
Observs behaviors and asks the person
Theory
Thinking is an automatic mechanism
Selection, interpretation, strategy of problem
solving
13
2.3. Is personality innate
or aquired?
14
Innate compound of personality
In 1962, Shields compares 44 couples of
monozygotic twins brought up separetely with
monozygotic twins brought up together and
with heterozygous twins brought up together:
→ very slight differences in intelligence and
personality of monozygotic twins whenever
brought up together or separately
→ big diffrences between heterozygous twins
all brought up together
15
But also role of the environment…
A survey of INSERM (Institut National de la
Santé et de la Recherche Médicale) on 35
children of very disadvantaged sections of the
population adopted by very wealthy families
and compared their academic success to that
of their 39 brothers and sisters:
→1 serious academic failure among the
wealthy, 13 among the disadvantaged
16
The concept of habitus
(P.Bourdieu)
Systems of internalized moods that
indicate to the individual ways of beeing
and behaving in social situations (ways of
walking, of speaking)
17
Interest and limits of these theories
Interest: importance of genetic and social
determinisms of behaviors
Limits: do not allow to seize the work of rewriting that everybody can do to transform the
way that history and society act in him
18
2.4.Personality trait
definition: constant and stable caracteristic of the
behavior of an individual (S.Robbins)
reason of interest: to foresee appropriateness between
individuals and theit job
Two surveys emerge:
-The MBTI (Myers-Bristol typologic indicator)
- Big Five model
19
The MBTI: the most used tool of the
world
• Set in the 40 s by K.Briggs and I. Myers from C.G.
Jung’s work on psychological types (1921)
• Questionnaire of average a hundred questions
about what people feel and do in various situations
20
Personality model of Jung
INROVERSION
EXTRAVERSION
Preference
PERCEIVE
Collect
informations
SENSATION
INTUITION
JUDGE
Decide
THINKING
FEELING
21
MBTI
4 leading dimensions in personality:
EI : communicative/ quiet
SN: practical, prefering order, routine/ global vision
TF: logical/ personal values, emotions
JP: seeking to control,structure/ flexibles, spontaneous
16 pesonality types de
Ex: INTJ: visionnaire, original, conducts his own idas and projects
with a big dynamism; critical, independent
ESTJ: organising, realiste, determined, talented for business
13 businessmen founders of Apple, FedEx, Microsoft, Sony: NT
22
« The Big Five » or « Five Factor
Model » of personality
 Openness : interest for new things, new experiences
 Conscientiousness: reliability, perseverance, organisation
 Extraversion (outgoing): capacity to be in relationship with others
 Agreeableness: concern for cooperation and social harmony
 « Neuroticism » (emotional stability): ability to resist pressure and
stress ; a person with low emotional stability is nervous, anxious,
depresses, doesn’t feel safe
Major links between these factors and performance at work.
23
Empirical validation of Big Five links
with performance at work
A vast survey among 5 categories: professional people (engineers,
architects, accountants and lawyers), policemen, managers, salespeople,
employees
linking traits to performance, earning
•
Conscientiousness present in the 5 categories
•
Extraversion: important for managers and salespeople.
•
Openness important when you have to train people
•
Emotional stability has no link with performance: nervosity may improve
performances, by depressed attitude is bad for every profession
24
3. Other leadership definitions
Leadership is what brings to an organisation
its vision et its aptitude of translating this
vision into reality (W. Bennis)
Leadership is the art of bringing persons to
voluntarily accomplish a task(H.B. Karp)
25
3. Other leadership definitions:
3.1.Leadership and management
 The overriding
function of
management is to
provide order and
consistency to
organizations,
whereas the primary
function of leadership
is to produce change
and movement
(Kotter, 1990)
Manager’s role :
Manage complexity
Define mission
Leader’s role
Lead change
Formulate strategy
Implement
srategy
26
Leadership and management
 Managers differ from leaders (Bennis,
Zaleznik, Kets de Vries)
– managers « know what they must
do »
– leaders « know what must be done »
leaders influence, guide, orient. They
have a vision and a charisma that allow to
motivate.
27
Du management au leadership
MANAGEMENT
LEADERSHIP
Chef d’orchestre et metteur Architecte et bâtisseur
en scène
Comment et quand?
Quoi et pourquoi?
Maître d’œuvre au
quotidien
Système et procédures
Maître d’ouvrage de
l’avenir
Vision et influence
Cherche à atteindre un
objectif
Chercher à mobiliser une
communauté
28
Philippe Gabilliet
3.2. Max Weber (1864-1920): 3 kinds of
leader/follower relations
 Asks how a leader can "legitimately" give a command and have




actions carried out?
Classified claims to the "legitimacy" in the exercise of authority
Identified three kinds of leader/follower relations – traditional,
bureaucratic and charismatic
Believe they occur in combination, and
Also argues that "there may be gradual transitions between these
types"
29
Max Weber's three ideal types of leaders
Three Frames
3. Charismatic Hero
(Transformer)
An individual personality set apart
from ordinary people and endowed
with supernatural, superhuman
powers and heroic charismatic
leadership qualities; part hero part
superman/superwoman
1. Bureaucratic
(Transactional)
Bureaucracy is "the exercise of control
on the basis of knowledge”; the
rational legal hierarchical power, the
Bureaucratic Leader
2. Traditional
(Feudal/Prince)
Traditional an arbitrary exercise
of power bound to loyalty,
favoritism, and politics; the princely
leader
30
Rational Grounds
(the bureaucrat)










Rest on a belief in the 'legality' of patterns of normative rules and the right of those in
authority to issue commands (legal authority)
The leader subject to strict and systematic discipline and control in the conduct of the
office
Claims to obedience based on rational values and rules and established by agreement
(or imposition)
The office holder restricted to impersonal official obligations and commands
Clearly defined hierarchy
Officials, not persons exercise authority
Each office defined by sphere of competence
Person does not owe obedience to the individual, but to the impersonal order
Rules regulate the conduct of an office (either technical rules or norms)
Complete separation of property belonging to the personal and to the organization
31
Examples

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


The Catholic Church,
Hospitals,
Religious orders,
Profit-making business,
Large-scale capitalistic enterprise,
Modern army,
The modern state,
Trade unions, and
Charitable organizations
32
Traditional Grounds
(the Prince)











Rest on an established belief in the sanctity of traditions and the legitimacy of the status
of those exercising authority (traditional authority)
Legitimacy and power to control handed down from the past
Power exercised in quite arbitrary ways
Office held by virtue of traditional status and by recruiting favourites or by patrimony
Obligations not by office but personal loyalty to the chief
Functions are defined in terms of competition among the interest of those seeking
favours, income, and other advantages
Irrational division of official functions (established by rights or fees)
Promotion by the arbitrary grace of the chief (no technical training of skill required)
Commands legitimized by traditions
Obligations of obedience on the basis of personal loyalty (kinship, or dependents)
Exercise of authority is only limited by resistance; or, but pointing to a failure to act
according to the traditions
33
Examples
 Ruling families,
 Feudal kingdoms in China, Egypt and Africa,
 Family business,
 Roman and other nobilities,
 Clans and,
 Armies of the colonies
34
Charismatic Grounds
(the Hero)












Rest on devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an
individual person, and
Of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained
Obeyed by virtue of personal trust, heroism or exemplary qualities
Charisma regarded as of divine origin, the person is treated as a leader
Hero worship
Set apart from ordinary people and endowed with supernatural and superhuman powers and abilities
Charismatic leaders choose members not for technical training, but on the basis of social privilege
and the charismatic qualities of disciples
People are not promoted - only called or summoned on the basis of their charismatic qualification
No established administrative organs, no system of formal rules, no abstract legal principle
Leader preaches, creates, or demands new obligations
Radically opposed to both traditional and particularly bureaucratic authority
The biggest challenge - the charismatic administrative staff to transition to a bureaucratic and rational
administration
35
Weber’s Model
 None of the three ideal types occurs in "pure" form;
transitions and combinations can be observed
 Can be a combination of bureaucratic, traditional, and
charismatic leadership
 The ideal (pure) types transmute one into the other
36
3.3. Are you born a leader or can you
become one?
Research on leadership as of the 30s goes in
2 directons:
 Explore the essence of leadership: what are
the intrinsic qualities of the leader?
 Explore the behavior of effective leaders :
can you become a leader and how?
37
4. The essence of leadership: trait and
skills approaches
 Phenomenons of leadership in small informal groups, in
groups of children, historic leaders
 Max Weber first gives a name to this quality that seem to
have some influencial men: as of 1916, il makes
charisma one of the 3 fundamental types of authority
relationship
 Assigned leaders/ emergent leaders
38
4.1. What personality traits has the
leader?
 No consensus.
 A group leader has several traits that
distinguish him from the other members
of the group but these traits change
according to the group.
39
Studies of leadership traits and
characteristics
Stogdill (1948)
Intelligence
Alertness
Insight
Responsibility
Initiative
Persistence
Self-confidence
Sociability
Mann
(1959)
Intelligence
Masculinity
Adjustment
Dominance
Extraversion
Conservatism
Stogdill (1974)
Achievement
Persistence
Insight
Initiative
Self-confidence
Responsibility
Cooperativeness
Tolerance
Influence
Sociability
Lord, DeVader
and Alliger
(1986)
Intelligence
Masculinity
Dominance
Kirkpatrick
and Locke
(1991)
Drive
Motivation
Integrity
Confidence
Cognitive ability
Task knowledge
40
Major leadership traits
 intelligence,
 self-confidence,
 determination,
 integrity
 sociability
(Peter G. Northouse, Leadership theory and practice, 4th edition, Sage, 2007)
41
4.2. Emotional intelligence:
Definitions
 The ability to perceive and express emotions to
facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with
emotions, and to effectively manage emotions within
oneself and in relationships with others (Mayer,
Salovey,&Caruso, 2000)
 A set of personal and social competencies
 Self-awareness, confidence, self regulation,
conscientiousness and motivation
 Empathy and social skills such as communication and
conflict management (Goleman, 1995)
42
4.3.Strenghts and criticisms of trait
approach
 Intuitevely appealing
 Not a definitive list of
leadership traits
 Backed by reasearch
 Doesn’t take situations into
account
 Personality and
assessment procedures
 Subjectivity

How to teach new traits?
43
4.4.Management skills necessary at
various levels of an organization, Katz
1955
TOP
Management
MIDDLE
Management
SUPERVISORY
Management
HUMAN
CONCEPTUAL
HUMAN
CONCEPTUAL
HUMAN
CONCEPTUAL
TECHNICAL
TECHNICAL
TECHNICAL
44
4.5.The essence of leadership by Warren
Bennis (HEC MBA Program conference 2004)
Absorption of uncertainty
2) Social and contextual intelligence (globale
education, treatment of a big variety of
informations, understanding of cultures,
networks)
3) Knowing how to analyse his own defects
and rendering his weaknesses irrelevant
1)
45
5. Leadership and Power
5.1 Definitions
 Power of A on B = ability of A to get from B a behavior
desired by A that B wouldn’t have adopted by himself
 Power is a relationship (Crozier et Friedberg, L’acteur
et le système, Paris, Le Seuil, 1977)
 2 means to obtain from someone to do what we would
like him to do:


Power
Influence or manipulation (way to deceive)
46
5.2. Bases of power according to French
and Raven
Coercive power:derived from having the capacity to penalize
or punish others
Referent power: based on followers’ identification and liking
for the leader (ex a schoolteacher adored by her pupils)
Expert power: based on followers’perceptions of the leader’s
competence.
Legitimate power:associated with having status or formal job
authority.
Reward power: derived from having the capacity to provide
rewards to others
(French and Raven, 1959)
47
2 additional theoretic approaches
 Power as mastering dependence
(Emerson, Blau)
 Power as mastering uncertainty
(Crozier, Friedberg)
48
5.3.Power as masterening dependence
of other people
We can get what we desire from a person if she depends on us to
get what she desires.
The more dependent a person is, the more she obeys.
B is dependent on A if A controls ressources that B needs.
The more important B’s need is, the more important A‘s power is.
The more B can satisfy its need at other sources, the more A’s
power is weakened.
A’s power on B is function of the felt (and not necessary real) need
by B, the perceived need by B of substitute ressources, and of the real
coercion capacity of B on A.
49
5.4.Power as mastering uncertainty

People in an organization may control different uncertainty zones :
 Mastering a special skill
 Mastering the link between the organization and a relevant part of its environment
 Mastering communication and information.
 Mastering appliance of rules and arbitration between several procedures.

On the other way, the whole organization appears as an interaction of uncertainties:
 Every action always depends on an action of another person
 The power of everyone is then proportional to his capacity of leaving uncertainty
on whether he is going to do or not the action expected from him.
 The power is then proportional to the autonomy towards rules : the more an
individual is free to act or not like the others needs him to do, the more his action
is unforeseeable, the more power he has on them.

Consequently, the more an individual has the capacity to reduce or increase
uncertainty which means either to master uncertainty relevant zones in the
organization, either to maintain the uncertainty regarding the actual doing of what is
expected from him, the more power he has.
50
5.5. The need for power
 Mc Clelland
Need for achievement
 Need for belonging
 Need for power
 Freud
 Le pouvoir renforce le Moi, dans sa lutte contre le Cà, (les pulsions
sexuelles)
 Adler
 Le pouvoir est une réponse à l’existence d’un sentiment
d’infériorité,
au
travers
d’un
phénomène
dit
de
« surcompensation »
 La recherche du pouvoir serait une forme de « formation
réactionnelle » visant à compenser les sentiments d’infériorité
cachés
 Il serait une «défensive compulsive » contre l’angoisse et la
dépréciation de soi

51
5.6. La logique de l’honneur (Philippe
d’Iribarne)
 Philippe d’Iribarne: le passé monarchique éclaire les
rapports hiérarchiques qui existent en France,
contrairement aux deux autres pays étudiés, les
États-unis et les Pays-Bas.
 A une condition toutefois:
 Cette obéissance doit s’inscrire dans un rapport à
« plus noble que soi »
« Celui qui obéit peut alors être animé d’une déférence envers celui qui commande,
d’un respect qui conduit à se soumettre, en conservant une âme libre. Il obéit alors
moins à la contrainte qu’à l’amour, ce type de soumission s’adresse à quelqu’un qui
n’est pas seulement perçu comme disposant de plus de pouvoir que soi, mais comme
revêtu d’une dignité ayant quelque chose de sacré. Obéir conduit alors à s’élever soi52
même » (La logique de l’honneur, 1993)
6. Behaviorial theories - Test
If I was the supervisor
1.
Strictly control my team so that they do
a better work
2.
Set the goals and objectives of my
employees and get their support to my
plans
3.
Set control mechanisms to make sure
that my employees do the work
4.
Encourage my employees to set their
own goals and objectives
5.
Make sure that the work of my
employees is planned for them
I would
strongly
tend to
I would
tend to
I would not
tend to
I strongly
would not
tend to
53
6. Behaviorial theories - Test
If I was the supervisor
6.
Determine every day with my employees
whether they need help
7.
Intervene as soon as reports show a
slackening in work
8.
Urge my employees to abide by
execution plans if necessary
9.
Organize frequent meetings to stay
aware of what is going on
10.
Allow my employees to take important
decisions.
I would
strongly
tend to
I would
tend to
I would not
tend to
I strongly
would not
tend to
54
Leadership attitudes: The X-Y scale
HYPOTHESES OF X THEORY
1. The average individual has an innate aversion for work and
does everything to avoid it
2. Because of that, the most part of people have to be forced,
controled , directed and threatened of punishement in order
to deploy the necessary efforts for organizational objectives.
3. The average individual prefers to be directed, wishes to
avoid responsibilities, has a relatively low ambition and
aspires before all to safety.
55
Leadership attitudes: The X-Y scale
HYPOTHESES OF Y THEORY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Physical and mental effort in work is as natural as game and rest.
External control and threat of sanction are not the only means to get an
effort directed towards organizational objectives. An individual can direct
and control himself to reach objectives he is responsible for.
Commitment towards objectives is function of rewards associated to their
achievement.
The average individual learns, in certain conditions, not only to accept
but also to seek responsibilities.
Capacities of imagination, ingenuity and creativity to solve organizational
problems are largely distributed among population.
In the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the
individual is only partially employed.
56
Test (following)
If I was the supervisor
1.
Strictly control my team so that they do
a better work
2.
Set the goals and objectives of my
employees and get their support to my
plans
3.
I would
strongly
tend to
I would
tend to
I would not
tend to
I strongly
would not
tend to
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
Set control mechanisms to make sure
that my employees do the work
4.
Encourage my employees to set their
own goals and objectives
5.
Make sure that the work of my
employees is planned for them
57
Test(following)
If I was the supervisor
6.
Determine every day with my employees
whether they need help
7.
Intervene as soon as reports show a
slackening in work
8.
9.
10.
Urge my employees to abide by
execution plans if necessary
I would
strongly
tend to
I would
tend to
I would not
tend to
I strongly
would not
tend to
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
1
Organize frequent meetings to stay
aware of what is going on
Allow my employees to take important
decisions.
58
6-Behaviorial theories
2 dimensions:


Dimension concern for people
Dimension concern for results
 Lewin, Lipitt et White (1927)
 Ohio State Studies (1950-1960)
 University of Michigan studies (1950-1960)
59
6.1. The orientation on concern for
people
 Mc Gregor ‘s « X et Y » theory historically important
in the evolution of management
 According to Mc Gregor every human being tries to
behave according to the hypotheses of Y theory. But
types of directions that he undergoes not always let
him the possibility: so laziness and indifference you
can see could be explained not by human nature but
by the fact that management hasn’t succeeded in
creating an atmosphere of trust or the necessary
conditions to integrate everybody well in the
company.
60
6.1. The orientation on concern for
people
 Likert’s experiment in an insurance company in 1967
(« Management, aspects humains et
organisationnels » p.381)
 Likert observed that some sections had better results
than others in spite of similar work conditions, similar
employees experience and corporate policy. He
established a correlation between these results and
the more democratic leadership style in these
sections. Thus the ideal organization he recommends
is one in which mangers seek to get and use the
ideas and opinions of their employees.
61
6.2 The orientation on both
dimensions
Blake and Mouton (1969) leadership grid : the best known model of
managerial behavior.
on which leaders position themselves according to their answer to a
questionnaire (p.74- poly n°2 p.5)
Degré d’intérêt porté aux
problèmes humains
élevé
faible
Social
Intégrateur
Compromis
Laisser-faire
Autocrate
Degré d’intérêt porté aux
impératifs de la production
élevé
62
Blake and Mouton
 In addition to the 5 major styles described in the
leadership grid , Blake and his colleagues have
identified 2 other styles that incorporate multiple
aspects of the grid:
 Paternalism/maternalism: refers to the leader who
uses both 1,9 and 9,1 but doesn’t integrate the two.
The benevolent dictator who acts graciously but does
so for the purpose of goal accomplishment.
 Opportunism: a leader who uses any combination of
the basic 5 styles for the purpose of personal
advancement.
63
Blake and Mouton
 For next session read poly 2 p.3 : « Le style
dans l’action »
 p.398 in « Management aspects humains et
organisationnels » Geneen the autoritycompliance leader and Matsushita, the team
manager
64
Test « Style questionnaire » poly 3 p.9
 Designed to measure 2 major types of
leadership behaviors : task and relationship.
 First sum the responses on the oddnumbered items. This is your task score.
 Second sum the responses on the evennumber items .This is your relationship score.
 Scoring interpretation
45-50 very high range
40-44 high range
35-39 moderately high range
30-34 moderately low range
25-39 low range
10-24 very low range
65
6.3. Limits of these studies
 Static approach
 Certain situations may require different
leadership styles
 Doesn’t say how to become a good leader
66
7. Situational approach

Different situations demand different kinds of leadership=> to be an effective leader requires
that a person adapts his or her style to the demands of different situations

Historical situations (p.375 M a.h.o)
 A given situation, most often a crisis, makes the leader to emerge K.Marx,
C.Gibb(1963), Bogardus (1963)
« Le leadership est toujours relatif à une situation et ceci de deux points de vue 1) le
leadership fleurit seulement dans une situation problématique; 2) la nature du rôle du
leader est déterminée par les besoins du groupe et ses buts » (Gibb)

Big leaders have been men of some situations never of all!
De Gaulle
Martin Luther King
Gandhi
Pétain

« Sortez-le de ces situations types et il est relativement impuissant » (Bogadus)

In a given type of situation, the leader seems to have a capacity of analysis that other people
don’t have which makes his strenght and efficiency . In objectively similar situations this
experience can be tranfered (organise help, coach a football team, make a battle plan, take a
company out of a difficult situation)…but less evident in non similar situations.




67
7.1. Fiedler contigency theory(1972).

Methodology of research:

Leaders’s style is measured through a questionnaire where each leader describes his Least
preferred coworker. The best result for the leader who evaluates in the most positive
terms=> centered on personal relations

Situations can be characterized in:




Leader-member relations: good or bad
Task structure: the degree to which the requirements of a task are clear and spelled out or
not (ex: cleaning the milkshake machine at McDo=structured/ fundraising for a local volunteer
organization=non structured)
Position power: the amount of authority a leader has to reward or punish followers: strong or
weak
Favorable, moderately favorable and unfavorable situations (P.385 M a h o)

Correlations between a group efficiency, leader ‘s style and situations

Conclusions:Very favorable situations or very unfavorable ones ask for a task oriented
leadership (better performance) while leaders in an intermediate situation get a better result
with a relationship oriented leadership
68
Strenghts and criticisms of
contingency theory
 Supported by empirical
research
 Predictive
 Difficult for respondents
to understand how their
description of another
person reflect their own
leadership style
 Confusion between the
less liked and less
prefered co-worker
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7.2. Hersey et Blanchard (1977)
situational approach:
 4 « leadership styles » based upon development levels of
followers
 Development level is the degree to which subordinates have the
competence and commitment to accomplish a given task
 Leadership styles consist of the behavior patterns of persons
who attempt to influence others:
 Directing
 Coaching (entraîner)
 Supporting (épauler)
 Delegating
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Hersey and Blanchard leadership
styles

Directing S1: establishing goals and methods of
evaluation,one-way communication focused on goal
achievement

Coaching S2 giving encouragement and soliciting
subordinate input, extension of directing (the leader makes
final decision on the what and how)

Supporting S3: help group members feel comfortable, twoway communication, asking for input, praising, listening,
sharing information about oneself, giving feedback; gives
subordinates control of day-to-day decisions but remains
available to facilitate problem solving.

Delegating S4:lessens his involvement in planning, control in
details and goal clarification ; lets subordinates take
responsibility for getting the job done the way they see fit.
71
Hersey and Blanchard situational
approach
 Employees move forward and backward along the development
continuum.
 Leaders have to determine where subordinates are and match their
style
 New employees very excited but lack understanding of job
requirements: D1
 Low commitment and some competence: D2
 Variable commitment and high competence:D3
 Workers with proven abilities and great devotion: D4
 Subordinates may move from one development level to another over a
short period (a day, a week) or over longer periods=> leaders have to
demonstrate a high degree of flexibility
 Test poly 2 p.15
72
Réponses au test
M1 : directif
M2 : persuasif (coaching)
M3 : participatif (supportive)
M4 : délégatif
73
74
75
Strenghts and criticisms of Hersey and
Blanchard approach
 Frequently used for
training leaders within
organizations
 Few research to justify
assumptions
 Doesn’t account for
characteristics like
education, experience, age,
gender
 Applied across work,
school, family

 Prescriptive: a
competent subordianate
who lacks
confidence=>?
A study of 2002 showed that level of
education and job experience are
inversely related to directive
leadership and not related to
supportive leadership (employees
with more education and work
experience desire less structure).
Female employees express
preference for supportive
leadership, male employees have a76
stronger desire for directive
leadership
8. Transformational leadership
 An exceptional form of influence that moves followers to
accomplish more than what is usually expected of them.
A process that incorporates charismatic and visionary
leadership.
 Burns(1978): leadership is different from power because
it is inseparable from followers’needs
 He distinguishes between transactional and
transformational types of leadership
77
8.1.Burns theory
 Transactional leadership: exchange dimension, ex:
politicians who win votes promising no taxes,
managers who promote employees who surpass their
goals
 Transformational leadership: raises the level of
motivation and morality in both the leader and the
follower(ex: Gandhi). A manager who attempts to
change his company’s corporate values to reflect a
more human standard of fairness and justice.
78
Hierarchy (Burns)
coercive with a
strong will to
power
.
moral
means to
lead
the moral ends
of leadership
79
Two Moral Leaders Sub-Types
 Transactional Leaders
 Transformational
 lead with modal values





(the means over ends)
Modal values include:
Honesty
Responsibility
Fairness
Honouring one's
commitments






Leaders
lead with transcendent
values (the ends over
means)
Transcendent values
include:
Liberty
Justice
Equality
Collective Well Being
80
8.2.Bass (1985) accused Burns

1.
2.
3.
Of three atrocities
Did not pay attention to followers' needs and wants,
Restricted transformational leadership to moral ends,
and
Set up a single continuum running from transactional
to transformational leadership types
81
Bass
 Argued that transformational leadership universally
applicable
 Regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire
followers to transcend their own self-interests for the
good of the group or organization
 Followers motivated to expend greater effort than would
usually be expected
82
Bass
 “Most leaders do both (transformation and transaction)
in different amounts“;
 “Transformational and transactional leadership are likely
to be displayed by the same individual in different
amounts and intensities“
 Transactional leader contribute confidence and desire
by clarifying required performance and how needs
would be satisfied as a result
 Transformational leader induces additional effort by
further sharply increasing subordinate confidence and
by elevating the value of outcomes for the subordinate
83
Bass
 Transformational leadership hierarchically superior to
transactional leadership - able to expand the subordinate's
needs with a focus on more transcendental interests
 Transactional leader appeals to lower order needs, while the
transformational appeals to higher order ones
 What the transactional leader accomplishes, the
transformational leader is able to "heighten" and "elevate" the
value of outcomes
 "The transactional leaders works within the organizational
culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the
organizational culture“
84
Comparison of Burns and Bass Models of
Transformational & and Transactional Leaders
BURNS Transactional
Leader
 approaches followers
with an eye to
exchanging one thing for
another
BASS Transactional Leader
 pursues a cost benefit,
economic exchange to
meet subordinates
current material and
psychic needs in return
for "contracted" services
rendered by the
subordinate"
85
Comparison of Burns and Bass Models of
Transformational & and Transactional Leaders
BURNS Transformational Leader
 "recognizes and exploits an existing
need or demand of a potential follower...
(and) looks for potential motives in
followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs,
and engages the full person of the
follower"
BASS Transformational Leader
 The leader who recognizes the
transactional needs in potential
followers "but tends to go
further, seeking to arouse and
satisfy higher needs, to
engage the full person of the
follower ... to a higher level of
need according to Maslow's
hierarchy of needs"
 Also use their authority and
power to radically reshape
through coercive means the
social and physical
environment, thus destroying
the old way of life and making
way for a new one
86
8.3. Bennis and Nanus (1985)
 A study of ninety top leaders
 Leader traits include: logical thinking,
persistence, empowerment, and self-control
 Rediscovered transformational (leaders) as
being different from transactional (managers)
87
4 strategies in transforming organisations
(Bennis and Nanus, 1985)
 Clear vision of the future state of their organizations. Vision is
simple, beneficial, energy creating. Enpowers followers and
makes them into change agents because they feel they are a
significant dimension of a worthwhile entreprise.
 Communicate a direction that transforms their organization’s
values and norms.
 Create trust in their organizations by making their own
positions clearly known and then standing by them.
 Creative deployment of self through positive self regard.
Leaders know their strenghts and weaknesses and emphasize
their strenghts rather than dwelling on their weaknesses.
88
Bennis, Nanus, 1985 p
391
89
8.4. Kouzes and Posner (2002)
 Interviewed more than 1 300 middle and senior-level
managers and asked them to describe their « personal
best »experiences as leaders
 5 practices of exemplary leadership:





Model the way
Inspire a shared vision
Challenge the process
Enable others to act
Encourage the heart
=> The Leadership Practices Inventory: a 360 degree
leadership assessment tool, widely used in leadership
training and development.
90
8.5. Strenghts of transformational
approach
 Large body of research
 Followers gain a more prominent position in
the leadership process (their needs are
central). It is related to their satisfaction,
motivation and performance.
 Morally uplifting (coercitive use of power is
not a model of leadership)
91
8.6.Criticisms
 Wide; difficult to define exactly the
parameters
 Validity of MLQ(factors correlate with each
others)
 Elitist, antidemocratic, gives the impression
that the leader is acting independently of
followers or putting himself above the
follower’s needs
92
9. James March and
leadership (2003)
James G. March is Professor Emeritus at Stanford University, best known for his
research on organizations and decision making. March is highly respected for his
broad theoretical perspective which combined theories from psychology and other
behavioural sciences. He collaborated with the cognitive psychologist Herbert Simon
on several works on organization theory. March is also known for his work on the
theory of the firm and on decision making known as the Garbage Can Model.
Since 1953, he has served on the faculties of the Carnegie Institute of Technology,
the University of California, Irvine, and (since 1970) Stanford University. He has been
elected to the National Academy of Science, the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and the , and has been a member of the National Science Board.
93
20 2h sessions on leadership
Les participants devaient lire chez eux quatre
œuvres littéraires: Othello, Guerre et Paix,
Sainte Jeanne (de Bernard Shaw) et Don
Quichotte
94
Deux remarques de James March
« Il est difficile d’établir des liens de causalité
entre les attributs et les comportements des
leaders et les résultats de l’organisation »
 « Le leadership pose un dilemme à
l’enseignant: c’est important comme le
succès, la vertu, l’amour mais cela ne
s’enseigne pas facilement »
95
Talents particuliers, recettes
miracle?
March doute du fait que le leadership requière des
talents hors du commun et que l’histoire soit,
d’abord, la conséquence des actions des puissants
Mais l’existence de chefs et nos attitudes vis-à-vis
d’eux sont essentiels au fonctionnement de la société
et au bien-être des individus
Les dirigeants d’entreprise lisent des auteurs
classiques portant sur l’art de la guerre (Clausewitz,
Sun Tse, et Napoléon) qui leur fournissent une
source de réflexion et de stimulation pour affronter la
concurrence, penser une stratégie, formuler une
tactique et mobiliser un corps social sur un champ de
bataille.
96
Qu’enseignent les œuvres littéraires
sur le leadership?
Othello:
 interactions complexes entre vie privée et vie
publique du leader
 l’habileté et la ruse (Iago), l’innocence (Desdémone)
Sainte Jeanne:
le génie contrarie les institutions en place et ne se
distingue du fou qu’à posteriori, lorsqu’il a provoqué
un changement salutaire.
97
Qu’enseignent les œuvres littéraires
sur le leadership?(2)
 Guerre et Paix:
 les ambiguïtés et l’incohérence de l’histoire et l’insignifiance
des actions humaines
 Don Quichotte:
 le rôle de la vision, des rêves, des espérances pour
entreprendre des actions d’envergure
 Importance de l’humour, de la dérision, de la joie, de
l’engagement gratuit et enthousiaste.
 Les leaders agissent souvent en fonction d’une vision, et
protègent celle-ci des critiques de leur entourage et des retours
d’expérience qui semblent leur donner tort. Ils interprètent à leur
manière les échecs rencontrés leur de la mise en oeuvre
98
Questions liées au leadership d’après
March
 L’importance de la position sociale est incompatible avec des relations humaines
authentiques et sincères.
 Les motivations personnelles ne sont pas sans effets sur les prises de décision
des leaders. Comment concilier sentiments personnels et responsabilités
organisationnelles?
 Les leaders dont dépeints comme d’astucieux manipulateurs de ressources et de
personnes mais aussi ayant une faculté à appréhender de façon simple.
 Les leaders ont une capacité visionnaire et osent prendre des risques.
 Ils peuvent contribuer à transformer les organisations grâce à leur créativité, leur
perspicacité et leur volonté.
 Mais la plupart des idées novatrices menacent la structure organisationnelle.
 Comment distinguer a priori les grands leaders des fous furieux?
99
Questions liées au leadership d’après March
(2)
 Un leadership efficace implique une capacité de
vivre dans deux mondes à la fois:


celui, incohérent de l’imagination et des rêves
et celui ordonné des plans et de l’action
pragmatique.
Comment concilier ambiguïté et cohérence?
100
« Les leaders sont à la fois plombiers
et poètes. »
 La « plomberie » consiste à veiller à
l’efficacité de l’organisation dans les tâches
de tous les jours.
 Les mots permettent de forger des visions, le
langage poétique, par son pouvoir
d’évocation, nous permet de « dire plus que
nous n’en savons, d’enseigner plus que nous
ne comprenons ».
101